Chazan is interested in the difference between the “morally educated person” and “indoctrination”. Dewey elucidated between these concepts through the notion of intellectual freedom and self-interest in terms of social control. Chazan (1985) suggested:
Dewey follows the general pattern of regarding ‘indoctrination’ as an undesirable activity which is opposed to “education”. “Education” for Dewey refers to the aim and attempt to advance growth; mis-education or “indoctrination” would refer to activities whose intent
34 The project was entitled “Building Bridges of Understanding and Belief in the Pacific Rim” and involved
and/or effect is to thwart growth…What characterizes education for Dewey is the dynamic relationship between a student and contents and experiences – where the intention is to help the student in his/her ability to further growth…” (p. 114)
This notion implies that the development of the “morally educated person” occurs within the individual and without impediment by external forces. Chazan theorized that, “According to such an approach, societies create morality and transmit it to their young through education; such transmission is not external imposition, but rather legitimate education, for without it, morality would not exist” (ibid: 103-104). The task of the teacher is to provide the materials and encourage the experiences, but it is the task of the student to make the connections between them, resulting in moral growth.
Conflict resolution and ethical deliberation are other aspects of self-realization, combining discourse with individuality to overcome disagreements. Dewey (1908) pointed out that, “Mutual self-realization does not require the elimination of opposition; indeed, it is through working out conflicts with one another that citizens contribute to each other’s learning and development (p. 227, quoted in Caspary, 2000: 13). According to Caspary (2000), it is the “creative interaction and tension between individual and society” that Dewey proposed which draws on a “distinctive individuality” instead of “sacrifice,” (Dewey, 1908: 348; quoted in Caspary, ibid). Rather, conflict resolution allows for intellectual freedom. Dewey (1916) affirmed:
A progressive society counts individual variations as precious since it finds in them the means of its own growth. Hence a democratic society must, in consistency with its ideal, allow for intellectual freedom and the play of diverse gifts and interests in its educational measures. (p. 305)
The democratic conception is clear: the concepts of inquiry and discourse, free and equal participation, and the utilization of democratic methods in all relationships lead to a sense of community. More importantly, the school demonstrates the democratic conception by encouraging the development of personality and creativity, valuing uniqueness and individuality, personal and mutual interest, and voluntary interaction.
7.4.1 Early Foundations
The historical underpinnings of Nationalism and Enlightenment as seen in Japan and Norway impacted the school in the development of the individual and the relationship to intellectual freedom. Tu (2000) has described these values:
…Surely, Enlightenment values such as instrumental rationality, liberty, rights consciousness, due process of law, privacy, and individualism are all universalizable modern values, but as the Confucian example suggests, “Asian values” such as sympathy, distributive justice, duty consciousness, ritual, public-spiritedness, and group orientation are also universalizable modern values... (p. 264)
Traditionally, nation states have incorporated civic programs as a means of building national identity or strengthening national unity (Kennedy, 2004; Cummings, 2003a). Indoctrination, nationalism, and patriotism were evident in the Japanese program during this time, and children were taught early the importance of pledging their loyalty to the State. While there was no State religion, Shinto, Confucian, and Buddhist belief systems encouraged ethics of respect, loyalty, and group mentality.
On the other hand, Christianity always played a central role in the organization of the goals within the Norwegian curriculum. While there was some secularization of schooling beginning in the early 1800s, “a Christian and moral upbringing” included Christianity as a formal school subject, as well as utilizing Christian teaching methodology in the classroom (Telhaug, 1994: 39).
7.4.2 Post World War II
Occupation and post war education represent a very specific paradigm. Established patterns in society are forced to change in order to accommodate new visions and ideas that are implemented from the top down and not necessarily representative of the populous. Over night, new systems are put into place and people are expected to act, not react, accordingly. Whether during the 1940s or today, despite governmental motivation, this ideology attempts to drastically alter the identity of a nation from the inside out. How has it been possible for such ideology to permeate the world? Giddens (2002) noted the unique strength of tradition:
It is a myth to think of traditions as impervious to change. Traditions evolve over time, but also can be quite suddenly altered or transformed. If I can put it this way, they are invented and reinvented…What is distinctive about tradition is that it defines a kind of truth. For
someone following a traditional practice, questions don’t have to be asked about alternatives. However much it may change, tradition provides a framework for action that can go largely unquestioned. (p. 40-41)
In the case of Japan, Western occupation quickly implemented home grown ideas and the educational focus shifted from the nationalistic to the democratic. Compton (2000) detailed:
Democratizing Japan, as a social engineering experiment, involved the transplantation of American constitutionalism and values to a nation whose elite core possessed a very different view of democracy. The Japanese elites operated under a very different belief; they believed that they could manufacture the consent of the governed through traditional culture. (p. 121; quoted in Helgesen, 2006: 192-193)
The replacement of the nationalistic agenda in favor of the development of the individual, cooperation, and creativity demonstrated a desire to account for more intellectual freedom, but to what extent was this only a Western imperative?
The German occupation in Norway interrupted the beginning of a progressive period. Nearly as quickly as the nation had been overcome by national socialistic ideology, a liberal government who was interested in uniting the country under positive pretenses was successfully elected and education became number one on the agenda. In opposition to the Occupation ideology, democratic education was the order of the day. Educating citizens in a free, democratic society was parallel to traditional Christian values. Considering that these democratic values had always been present in the Norwegian educational tradition, this rhetoric only reiterated the deeply rooted sense of democracy in Norwegians.
7.4.3 Today
The transition from post war education programs to the contemporary curricula of the 1980s through today reflects a general move towards a more liberal policy concerning moral values education. Yoneyama (2002) has indicated that the discussion surrounding resurgent nationalism in Japan has more or less ceased, although South Korea and China continue to protest censorship issues. What remains more controversial is the methodology of “education of the heart” and the implementation of the kokoro no noto. It is worth noting that there is limited information is available in English which discusses the actual use of these notebooks in the classroom. On field work in Tokyo in 2005, one colleague noted that it was nearly impossible to locate the notebooks in local bookstores and when she inquired where they
were available, the bookstores indicated that few schools in the greater Tokyo area were actually using the books (personal communication, 1 April, 2005).
Christianity remains an important feature of the current curriculum in Norway; however, the teachings of other religions and beliefs are represented in schools based on the L97 reform. Norway has demonstrated more ease and open-mindedness in dealing with multiculturalism in this regard than Japan.