Pasos para realizar un sistema gamificado

NZ is a multicultural society, with a population of four million. The majority of New Zealanders identify as being of European descent (75%), with the remaining identifying as Māori (15%), Pasifika (9%) or Asian (7%) (Goedegebuure, Santiago, Fitznor, Stensaker & van der Steen, 2008). Education is compulsory for children aged 6-16 (Ministry of Education, 2008, 2012a). Tertiary education in NZ is broadly defined as a single sector encompassing all post-school education (Grey & Scott, 2012; Ministry of Education, 2012a), and covers “the full spectrum of adult literacy and second chance learning for those without previous formal or low schooling” (Goedegebuure et al., 2008, p. 15). The tertiary education sector comprises 900 institutions13 catering to over half a million (predominantly domestic) students; 33% of these students are enrolled in one of the eight national research universities (Goedegebuure et al., 2008; Ministry of Education, 2012b). University entrance requirements are determined by National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA) credits in approved subject areas, including literacy and numeracy (Ministry of Education, 2012c; NZQA, 2013). In addition,

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Tertiary education institutions are divided into universities (8), institutes of technology or polytechnics (20), colleges of education (2) and Wānanga (Māori centres of tertiary learning (3) as well as a range of private training establishments, industry training organisations, and adult and community education providers.

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any NZ or Australian citizen aged 20 or over can gain special admission without a university entrance qualification (Healey & Gunby, 2012; Universities New Zealand, 2013)

NZ university degrees are typically three-year programmes, though specialist vocationally-focused degrees may take 4 to 6 years. Only one NZ university offers a general education component in the first-year undergraduate programme, which consists of a broad range of content-focused introductory courses (University of Auckland, 2013). In the majority of cases, students enter their major in the first year (Universities New Zealand, 2013). At all universities, introductory academic literacy (predominantly writing-oriented) courses are offered, but are only compulsory for some programmes, thus remaining elective courses for a large number of students. Pre-university or foundational programmes offer a much greater focus on academic literacy and study skills, but these are often taken by domestic and international students who have not met university entrance requirements and, therefore, tend to be viewed as remedial support for learning.

In recent years, NZ universities have changed in similar ways to those in the US, UK and Australia (see 3.1). Students entering NZ universities come from increasingly diverse backgrounds, with the former Labour government taking proactive steps towards widening participation for specific under-represented groups, including Māori, Pasifika, women and those from low socio-economic backgrounds (Goedegebuure et al. 2008). These steps have had implications for students’ successful transition into university study. Consistent with the literature on transition to university, the perceived widening gap between high school and university (see 3.1.4) is also a feature of discourse around university preparedness in NZ (Jansen & van der Meer, 2012). With this widening participation, larger numbers of students may struggle to transition into university successfully, particularly non-traditional students and those from under-represented groups (Healey & Gunby, 2012; Jansen & van der Meer, 2012).

Since 2008, economic pressures due to the global economic crisis have led the current National government to modify funding for higher education. Grey and

Scott (2012) recognise that the goals of the Tertiary Education Commission (TEC) have shifted from 2008, where broad-based human, social, scientific and economic progress were balanced between business needs (economic goals and growth) and the needs of learners (educational culture of optimism and creativity). Since 2011, the goal has narrowed towards economic advancement, which has led to a predominant focus on the labour market and economy. Accompanying changes in government funding have led to capped enrolments for many courses, which has shifted the focus from open enrolment to better performance and results (Grey & Scott, 2012; Healey & Gunby, 2012). The implications of this are as yet unknown, but some universities have already introduced selected entry criteria and minimum standards for progression. This will again shift the discussion on transition to higher education for under- represented groups who may be denied access to university under the new entry conditions (Healey & Gunby, 2012).

Teaching in NZ universities also tends to follow the lecture-focused trends identified in section 3.3.1. As Wang (2010) identified, the lack of a tertiary teaching qualification leads to limited knowledge of effective pedagogy for supporting learning at universities. University teaching is conducted using a combination of lectures, tutorials, and laboratory or field practices (depending on the discipline) (Ministry of Education, 2008). Physical spaces for teaching, while incorporating a range of technology, are still predominantly designed for one-way delivery of content. Tutorials, where smaller groups of students work together to apply learning from lectures, are designed to facilitate discussion and active learning (Ministry of Education, 2008), but are not compulsory for all courses.

Once students enter university, they are expected to become independent learners (see 3.4), and this may contribute to the lack of explicit support for learning offered within degree programmes. While all NZ universities offer a range of learning support and library services to help students develop necessary academic competencies to succeed in higher learning, these services tend to be both under-resourced and under-utilised by students. One learning advisor expressed concern over ‘targeted advice’. He suggested learning advisors can guide students to what they want, when they need it, but

independence comes when students can put these skills into practice, rather than merely finding out how to do it in the first place. He further indicated that the chances of students finding what they need at first year without facilitation are slim (personal communication, February 15, 2011). Effective use of student learning support services relies on students being aware of the support they need, and having the confidence to ask for help. Jansen and van der Meer (2012) argue that NZ universities need to better support first-year students to develop essential academic literacies as part of the curriculum to ease the transition into the demands of higher learning.

As observed in section 3.1.4, secondary school curricula and assessment have an impact on students’ preparedness for university. Secker’s (2011) observation that the ‘teach to the test’ model in the UK negatively impacts on students’ readiness for university demands is mirrored in the perceived assessment- driven focus within NCEA (Alison, 2005; Hipkins, 2013; Locke, 2005), which was implemented in 2002 (NZQA, 2013). Despite the potential for NCEA to offer student-focused learning opportunities (Hipkins, 2013), some teachers believe NCEA creates very utilitarian learners who concentrate on credit accumulation over learning (Alison, 2005; BEP Instructor Interviews, 2010; Locke, 2005). Hipkins’ (2013) research revealed that over half of NZ secondary school teachers surveyed felt pressured to boost students’ NCEA results to meet Ministry of Education educational achievement targets, which “arguably orients interpretation away from legitimate learning gains” (p. 17). Some university instructors in this research were quick to blame students’ lack of preparedness for university on the high school curriculum, and believed NCEA fosters a learning approach that demands step-by-step instruction and makes students reliant on models and exemplars (BEP Instructor Interviews, 2010).