419 Cf. Alberich E., “Catechesi”, in: Gevaert J(ed.), Dizionnario di Catechesi, Elle Di Ci, Torino, 1986, pp.104-108
420
Cf. Gruppo G., “Catecumenato Antico”, in: Gevaert J(ed.), Dizionnario di Catechesi, pp.133-134
421 Ekstrom R.R., The New Concise Catholic Dictionary, Bangalore: St Paul Press Training School, 2005, p.60
instruction of the neophyte in the mysteries of the faith was called mystagogia. Some of the greatest catechetical homilies and treatises, such as those of Cyril of Jerusalem, St. Ambrose and St. Augustine, are illustrations of mystagogical reflection on the sacramental experience. For instance, St. Augustine wrote a classic work called De Catechizandis Rudibus, or How to Catechize the Ignorant, linking salvation history to faith, to hope, and ultimately to charity. It was presumed in St. Augustine’s work that ignorant people who were instructed in the Faith would themselves provide home instruction to their children, and that this instruction would be supplemented by liturgical homilies in church. St. Gregory the Great wrote a series of “Books of Dialogue” which expressed to pastors, parent, and teachers the proper way of handing down the Faith, as well as giving to these people the content of the Faith. He also wrote a book of pastoral regulations for Bishops and for priests and a long series of pastoral homilies which contain catechetical material of great significance.423
Catechesis for the first five centuries of Christianity was primarily a pre-baptismal instruction given to adults. With the decline of the catechumenate in the fourth and fifth centuries, “the catechetical situation shifted from adult initiation to the baptism of infants, from pre-baptismal to post-baptismal instruction, and from a catechesis out of a biblical and liturgical context to a formation derived primarily from a Christian environment.”424 The spread of infant baptism at this period in time saw the disappearance of catechumenate and the term catechesis in the 8th and 9th centuries. St. Thomas Aquinas in his Summa Theologica used such terms like Catechismus, Catechizare, Catechizatus meaning the elementary instruction given by parents or sponsors to their baptized child. For the faithful the homilies on Sundays and holy days centered on moral exhortation. Some memorization of prayers and doctrinal formulas was required but the devotions, processions, mime, songs, sacred verse and art assimilated from the milieu were the most influential forms of instruction.
Until the end of fifteenth century, catechesis remained oral and experiential. The invention of the printing press by John Gutenberg in approximately 1450, affected the history of catechesis
423 http://www.ewtn.com/library/CATECHSM/NCOFCC.HTM
424
in a radical way. The focal point of religious education became the printed page and the recitation of doctrinal questions and answers. As printing came into vogue and paper was more widely and readily available, books of catechetical material became widely diffused throughout the Church. Great missionary saints, such as St. Bede, St. Boniface etc., were extraordinary catechists. Even great geniuses who worked in the theological sciences, such as St. Thomas Aquinas, also popularized the content of our faith and were known for writing and diffusing catechetical instructions. The Mendicant Orders, that is, the Franciscans, Dominicans, Carmelites and similar groups that arose in the high middle Ages, were particularly effective in spreading the Faith, and in assisting those who already believed, to have a better grasp of their faith through catechetical knowledge. Nevertheless, “the term catechesis was not revived, and the institution, which emerged instead, was called “Catechism”, the name being applied not only to the body of instruction but to the book, which was principal source of that form of teaching. The catechism began to appear in two forms: large “Catechisms” that serve as theological resources for pastors, preachers, and teachers, and “Small Catechisms” that served as manuals of instruction in the hands of clergy, schoolmasters, and parents. Children were expected to commit them to memory.”425 The catechism reduced catechesis to instruction, to memorization, for use mainly by children.
Outside the printing press, with the Council of Trent (which was summoned to confront the crises that the protestant revolt brought about in Christianity by Martin Luther), catechesis once again drew some fresh energy. It gave catechesis priority in its constitutions and decrees. It published the Roman Catechism or Catechism of Council of Trent under Pius V in 1566 and later revised and issued again in 1583 by Gregory XIII. This is a work of the first rank as a summary of Christian teaching and a source book for the use of parish priests. The Catechism of the Council of Trent particularly, “because of its completeness and its doctrinal orthodoxy and integrity, was strongly recommended by Pope Leo XIII, Pope St. Pius X and Pope Pius XI. Many catechisms, especially those issued by great saints such as St. Vincent de Paul, St. John Baptist de
425 Marthaler B.L., The Catechism Yesterday and Today: The Evolution of a Genre, Collegeville: The Liturgical
la Salle, and St. Robert Bellarmine, were based on the Roman Catechism, as were the various national catechisms issued through the centuries.”426
The Roman Catechism remains of great value and gave rise to remarkable organization of catechesis in the Church and also aroused the clergy to their duty of giving catechetical instructions. The Roman Catechism has a great deal in common with the new catechism of the Catholic Church.
Moreover, in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, religious orders of women and men dedicated to education increased in number and the school steadily established itself as the primary setting for catechesis. This was also a time of the proliferation of catechisms. It was not uncommon for a diocese to have its own catechism, often written by or attributed to the bishop. The same situation of pluriform catechisms in the U.S. led the American bishops at the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore427 in 1829 to authorize a uniform catechism for the dioceses of the United States. Most people in pre-Vatican days were familiar with Baltimore Catechism. For seventy-five years, the Baltimore catechism was both memorized verbatim and used as a syllabus for Catholic textbooks and religious programs. The Baltimore Catechism contained 421 questions-answers and followed the sequence of creed, sacraments, and commandments. Nevertheless, “its focus and emphasis was not necessarily that which contemporary pedagogues would appreciate, or for that matter, some theologians, liturgists, Scripture scholars and others, although it did have the great advantage of being a more or less complete skeletal outline of the Catholic Faith.”428
The Baltimore Catechism was revised by a committee of American Bishops in 1941 and was set out in a formula that geared it to various educational levels. It also was, at that time, permitted to be a basis for other catechetical presentations in the United States, and, consequently, enjoyed a more vigorous revival in the decades immediately preceding the Second Vatican Council.
426 http://www.ewtn.com/library/CATECHSM/NCOFCC.HTM
427
The Baltimore Catechism was agreed upon by the Bishops of the United States in Third Plenary Council of
Baltimore, which took place in 1884. It was put together and finally issued in 1885 by Cardinal Gibbons who, at the time, was the head of the American hierarchy. It took the American Bishops from 1829 to 1885 to put together the
Baltimore Catechism, which in turn, derived from what was called the Roman Catechism or the Catechism of the Council of Trent.
428
However, the call for a universal catechism was the topic of lengthy debate at the First Vatican Council (1869-70); although, in the end the proposal for a uniform catechism was accepted by majority of the council fathers but never implemented. The quest for universal catechism and a catechetical renewal movement in the Church never ended with Vatican I Council. By the early part of 20th century a number of church leaders had begun to consider newer and better techniques for catechizing others. In fact, the urge for this universal catechism and a catechetical renewal gained more momentum and reached a climax in the late 1950’s and late 1960’s especially in the preparatory stages of Vatican II. The aim of the movement is to improve not only the method but also the content of catechesis. In any case, after Vatican II Council (1962-1965), there was a common directory for the universal church and also the word catechesis once again became a familiar term for Catholics but then the content of catechesis never improved.
Consequently, the renewal the Second Vatican Council made on the church especially on the areas of liturgy, scripture and catechesis left many in a state of confusion. This changeover, along with the cultural shock that came from the vernacular in the liturgy and other “innovations,” unleashed many people from their moorings, and caused them to question even essential doctrines, beliefs, and practices of the Faith. Many began to say “I do not know what I am to believe anymore.”429
The first years after the Vatican Council were years of unparalleled change, creativity and enthusiasm that quickly became laced with discontent and criticism. The problem of inculturation also came to bear on catechetics. The Second Vatican Council was sensitive to the variety of cultures in the world. It recognized the fact that although human nature is the same, the culture in which this human nature is lived is quite different from one part of the world to another. What is acceptable in one society may be regarded as a taboo in another society with different culture and mentality. There was really confusion on how to reconcile the beliefs of different continents and the teaching of catechesis. This confusion the Church found herself after the Second Vatican Council resulted in the issuance by the Congregation for the Clergy in Rome, which is the department of the Holy See in charge of catechesis, of a General Catechetical
Directory430 on March 18, 1971, and then each country was invited to issue a national catechetical directory, adapting the General Catechetical Directory to the culture of the country. These “catechetical directories were designed principally for the people involved in catechesis; catechetical content was also contained in the directories. The immediate purpose of the Directory was to provide assistance in the production of catechetical directories and catechisms. Indeed, it is for this reason, that is, to help in the preparation of these tools, that the following have been done. Some basic features of present-day conditions have been set forth, so as to stimulate studies in the various parts of the Church, studies which should be carried out with careful and diligent effort, with regard to local conditions and local pastoral needs. Some general principles of methodology and catechesis for different age groups have been noted, so as to highlight how necessary it is to learn the art and wisdom of education. Special pains have been taken in the composition of Part Three, where the criteria which should govern the presentation of the truths to be taught through catechesis are set forth and where a summary of essential elements of the Christian faith is also given, so as to make fully clear the goal which catechesis must of necessity have, namely, the presentation of the Christian faith in its entirety.431
The General Catechetical Directory was an important step in providing direction for catechesis. Although it “remains the Church’s standard of reference”432
and “still the basic document for encouraging and guiding catechetical renewal throughout the Church”433
, however, “catechesis encounters obstacles in some areas because the doctrinal renewal which Vatican II desired was not correctly understood. This misunderstanding extends both to the content and to
430The General Catechetical Directory is the most document regarding catechetics issued during the pontificate of
Paul VI. It is proposed to speak a clear and precise word about the nature, the contents and the goals of catechesis. For the first time in the history of the universal Church, the theme of catechesis was treated in an organic and systematic way.
431
Sacred Congregation for the Clergy, General Directory for Catechesis, Nairobi: Pauline’s Publication,1997, no. 1
432 John Paul II., Catechesi Tradendae, no.50
the method of catechesis.”434
Many people also used the occasion of the renewal by the Second Vatican Council to spread abroad a whole series of ideas, some of which were far removed from the Council and far removed from the Catholic Faith itself. In fact, “changes were not accompanied by opportunities for all concerned to understand, internalize, and participate in renewal.”435
Consequently, “alarmed by these developments, John Paul II summoned the Bishops of the world through the International Synod of Bishops, to gather in Rome and consider the entire matter of catechesis. This 1977 Synod of Bishops on “Catechesis in our Times,” described catechesis as word, memory and witness. The bishops stated that the model of all catechesis is the baptismal catechumenate and is the responsibility of all in the church. The Synod affirmed the direction taken by the modern catechetical movement, stating that it has produced excellent results for the renewal of the entire community of the church.”436
Following that session of the International Synod of Bishops, the Pope issued a document called Catechesi Tradendae437, which summarized, synthesized and presented very dearly what the bishops and the Holy Father agreed upon, as necessary structures in regard to catechetics.”438
Thus, both the “message” of the bishops at the 1977 Synod, and the “propositions” on catechesis they handed on to the Pope, significantly influenced the final version of Catechesi Tradendae; yet the document still bears the unique stamp of John Paul II.439 This document is addressed, to the bishops, the clergy and the faithful of the Catholic Church on the subject of catechesis, or religious education today. In addition to incorporating the reflections of the late Pope Paul VI and John Paul I on the rich documentation and list of thirty-four propositions presented at the end of the Synod of Bishops on Catechesis held during October 1977, this Apostolic Exhortation strikingly demonstrates the
434
Pope John Paul II: Catechist, p.43
435 John Paul II., Catechesi Tradendae, no.17
436 Komonchak J.A., Collins M, and Lane D.A.(eds.), The New Dictionary of Theology, p.165
437
Catechesi Tradendae, The title of which, freely translated, means “means handing on the teaching.
438 http://www.ewtn.com/library/CATECHSM/NCOFCC.HTM
Holy Father’s deep personal interest in and concern for the catechetical enterprise.440
John Paul II indicates this when he states:
Catechesis has always been a central care in my ministry as a priest and as a bishop. I ardently desire that this apostolic exhortation to the whole Church should strengthen the solidity of the faith and of Christian living, should give fresh vigor to the initiatives in hand, should stimulate creativity - with the required vigilance - and should help to spread among the communities the joy of bringing the mystery of Christ to the world.441
In fact, the New Catechism of the Catholic Church should be read and understood in light of its history, especially Catechesi Tradendae and General Catechetical Directory. This is so because “time and time again it becomes quite evident that although he inherited the initial draft of this document from his predecessors, he, nevertheless, felt it necessary to present his own practical and pastoral reflections. There is so much of himself in the document. That it bears so much of his pastoral concern and style is due in part, no doubt, to the fact that he served as a member of the Council of the General Secretariat for the Synod of 1977.442 John Paul II’s effort to stress everywhere the importance and necessity of Catholic Doctrine cannot be overstressed. Indeed, it is correct to say that: “The pastoral visitations of John Paul II can all be described as catechetical missions in which clear guidelines for witnessing to and handing on the Catholic tradition to people of every race and nation are consistently set forth."443 This is clearly evident in New Catechism of the Catholic Church. Hence in issuing the New Catechism of the Catholic Church, John Paul II stated:
440 John Paul II., Catechesi Tradendae, no.12
441
John Paul II., Catechesi Tradendae, no.4
442 John Paul II., Catechesi Tradendae, nos.12-13
443 Nancy Frazier, “Pope in France was Schoolmaster Walking Alongside Us,” N.C News Service, Washington,
A catechism must present faithfully and organically the teaching of Sacred Scripture, the living Tradition of the Church, and the authentic Magisterium, as well as the spiritual heritage of the Fathers and saints of the Church, in order to allow the Christian mystery to be known and to revive the faith of God's people. It must take into account the presentations of doctrine which the Holy Spirit has entrusted to the Church over the centuries. It must also help to illumine with the light of faith the new situations and problems which have not been posed in the past. The Catechism, therefore, contains both the new and the old, for the Faith is always the same and the source of ever new lights.444
Today the Catechism stresses the presentation of doctrine. It is a “sure and authentic source book for the teaching of Catholic doctrine, especially for the composition of local catechisms. It is also offered to the faithful who want to understand better the inexhaustible riches of salvation. It seeks to give support to ecumenical efforts, motivated by the desire for the unity of all Christians, by demonstrating with precision the content and harmonious coherence of the Catholic Faith. The Catechism of the Catholic Church, finally, is offered to everyone who asks the reason for the hope that is in us and who would like to know what the Catholic Church believes.”445
There is no doubt that the Church intends the Catechism of the Catholic Church to be the criterion against which local catechisms must be judged and understood.