47 otros por el peligro que los amenazaba a todos por igual Inclusive los federalistas y

Each of the REEs have their own characteristics and thus serve different functions. The uses of REEs can be seen in Tables 2.2 and 2.3. Based on these two tables, it is evident that REEs products take two main forms: intermediate and final products. Hence, their applications can be found in two different markets. For the intermediate products, REEs are typically demanded by the producers or manufacturers. They use REEs as components

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or ingredients to produce other products. Meanwhile, final products are mainly used by the customers, who gain utility from using these products.

Table 2.2 shows the individual components of REEs and their functions in producing intermediate products. The words written in bold for the individual REEs refer to the components that are used in clean energy technologies. In other words, these elements may have a high demand in future, because according to Tietenberg and Lewis (2012), when countries improve their economic conditions, the income of their people will also increase, and thus, people will be willing to pay more to ensure better environmental quality. Governments are expected to tighten their policies in response to consumer demand. Consequently, the producers and manufacturers may have to use and sell green technology products.

Table 2.2 Intermediate products

Light REEs Major End Use Heavy REEs Major End Use

Cerium – 1st most abundant Metal alloys (metallurgy), catalyst, petroleum refining, glass and glass polishing, ceramics products, silicon microprocessors, phosphors, chemical oxidising agent, carbon lighting and

rechargeable batteries (NiMH).

Gadolinium Magnets, computer memories, high refractive index glass, laser neutron capture, nuclear fuel bundles, glass additive, hosts for x-ray cassettes,

scintillator materials for computer axial

tomography, lamps phosphors, tumours treatment in neuron therapy, assists cancer diagnosis and bone density test.

Lanthanum

– 2nd _most abundant

Metal alloys, hybrid engines, Fluid Catalytic Cracking catalysts, green phosphors,

Terbium Additive to permanent magnets, phosphors, projection televisions, x-ray phosphor,

20 rechargeable batteries (NiMH), x-ray films, lasers, waste water treatment, carbon lighting, hydrogen storage, glass and optical glass.

ceramic products, laser, electric motors, weapon systems and magneto- optic recording films.

Neodymium – 3rd _most abundant Catalyst, petroleum refining, permanent magnets24 _(NdFeb), hybrid engines, lasers, glass colouring and tinting, dielectrics, ceramic capacitors and astronomical

instruments.

Dysprosium Permanent magnets (NdFeB), ceramic, lighting, lasers, optical formulations additives, nuclear reactors and electric motors.

Samarium25 Permanent magnets (SmCo), reactor control rods, laser applications, aerospace equipment, drug treatment in lung, prostate, breast and bone cancer, catalyst, electro-mechanical relays, neutron capture, masers, microwave technology and servo motors.

Holmium Medical and dental applications, glass colouring, magnets, nuclear control rods, microwave equipment and lasers

Praseodymiu m

Permanent magnets, glass and ceramic

Erbium Phosphors, glass and glass colouring, optical

24 _{It is used with praseodymium to create the strongest magnets.}

25 _{In the early 1970s, samarium-cobalt magnets replaced the platinum-cobalt magnet (which was more}

expensive), but now they have been superseded by neodymium-iron-boron magnets (which was less expensive).

21 products, NiMH

batteries, airport signal lenses, photographic filters, scintillator materials for computer axial tomography scans, aircraft engines.

amplifier, medical and dental lasers and nuclear applications

Promethium26 Mainly for research purposes, portable x-ray source, beta radiation sources, fluid-fracking catalyst, lasers

applications and thermoelectric generators.

Ytterbium Fibre amplifier, fibre optic technologies, laser applications, solar panels, earthquakes and nuclear explosions monitors, radiation source for portable x- ray units, cancer treatments and steel alloys.

Europium Red colour television and computer screen phosphors, medical, surgical, weapon system, communication devices, glass additives, nuclear control

applications, nuclear magnetic resonance shift reagents, lasers, mercury-vapour lamps and biochemical applications

Lutetium X-ray phosphors, optical fibre, positron emission tomography (PET) scan detectors, cancer treatments, high refractive index glass, catalysts in petroleum refining and reveal the age of ancient items.

26 _{This element does not occur naturally as do the others and must be produced in laboratories. It is used}

22 Scandium Metallurgy, various

optical coatings, ceramic, phosphor, metal alloys for

aerospace industry and additive in mercury- vapour lamps.

Yttrium Phosphors, superconductors, stainless steel alloys, electrodes, electrolytes, electronic filters, thermal plasma sprays, microwave

communication equipment, laser applications, solar panels, optical coating, thin film applications, metallurgy, fluorescent lamps, ceramics, metal alloy agents,

microwave filters, yttria-stabilised zirconia, cancer and arthritis treatments and fuel efficiency.

Thulium Magnets, blue light in flat panel screens, radiation device in portable x-ray machines, lasers in defence and medicine and meteorology.

Adapted from: Swift et al. (2014), International Electronics Manufacturing Initiative (2014), Jowitt (2013), Humphries (2012), USEPA (2012a), Jepson (2012) and Australian atlas of mineral resources, mines and processing centres (2013).

Most products in Table 2.2 do not clearly indicate the importance of REEs in consumers’ lives. Thus, it appears as though the problem of REEs shortage might have no impact on them. However, if the consumers learnt that their daily commodities such as air conditioners, microwaves, computers, watches or even their health equipment are reliant

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on REEs, and a shortage of REEs would mean less availability of these products, it would definitely make everyone worried. Shortage of REEs also means that the change towards developing green technologies to slow climate change will become more limited. Electric cars, wind turbines and solar panels created from REEs can help to convert natural resources such as sun and wind into the power that fuel energy in people’s lives (Abraham, 2015). Nonetheless, not everyone knows about the significance of REEs, unless they are in this business. Therefore, Table 2.3 presents some final products that are known by consumers which are created from REEs.

Table 2.3 Final products

Intermediate products Final products Magnets

(Nd, Pr, Sm, Tb, Dy)

Hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), Electric Vehicles (EVs), aircraft, wind turbines, earphones, mobile phones, cameras, smart bomb, refrigerators, watches and air conditioners. Phosphors

(Eu, Y, Tb, La, Dy, Ce, Pr, Gd)

Energy efficient fluorescent lights (energy saving light), Liquid Crystal Display (LCDs) TVs, monitors, cathode-ray tube (CRT), Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines. Metal alloys

(Ce, La, Nd, Pr)

Aerospace and military hardware, hybrid cars, sport equipment.

Glass, polishing & ceramics

(Ce, La, Nd, Er)

TVs, mirrors, monitor screens (CRT, LCD & plasma), telescopes and camera lenses.

Adapted from: Stegen (2015), Schüler et al. (2011) and Mancheri (n.d.).

Due to their importance in today’s technology, some REEs are classified as ‘strategic’ and ‘critical’ minerals,27 _{especially for countries such as the USA, the Europe, Japan and} even China (McLellan et al., 2014), as REEs’ functions are irreplaceable in numerous applications (Abraham, 2015). In June 2010, the European Commission listed REEs as one of the critical metals due to the vital role they play in industries, and their vulnerability or possible shortages (Massari and Ruberti, 2013). The National Science and Technology Council (NSTC) also considers REEs to be critical materials. The term ‘critical’ is defined

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by the NSTC as substances that have essential functions in the manufacturing of products, where the absence will cause substantial social consequences, and the supply is vulnerable to disruption (Nieto et al., 2013).