Whilst McNaughton Nicholls et al. (2014) stated there was minimal empirical evidence to suggest differences in the ways in which young males and females were sexually exploited, their 2014 UK study into the sexual exploitation of young males, provided some identification of pathways in which males became victims of CSE. These are presented below, however, the authors cautioned that these examples were by no means definitive or exclusive to males.
The trusted friend scenario is one whereby a young male might be befriended by a male
perpetrator by appearing to be a trusted friend (often older and heterosexual). The relationship is often based on a ‘stereotypically masculine’ shared interest, with the relationship becoming sexually exploitative once trust is established (McNaughton Nicholls et al. 2014, p.20). This is in contrast to Barnardo’s ‘boyfriend’ model (1998) where there is an initial romantic element to the relationship. One example of this which received significant media attention in 2016, was the exposure of the abuse and exploitation of young males by football coaches.6 Exploitation through a shared interest has also manifested itself through activities such as online gaming, an activity more predominant amongst young males than females (Davidson et al. 2012).
The exploitation of GBTQ described situations where young males may be exploring their sexuality but feel they have limited safe places to do this because of homo-, bi-, trans-phobic prevailing attitudes. Consequently, they may seek out and engage in same-sex relationships covertly which can create a vulnerability to sexual exploitation. As mentioned above, technology may be one means by which this group of young males might seek this contact with others.
The sexual exploitation of young males by female perpetrators was another theme identified by professionals (McNaughton Nicholls et al. 2014), for example, older women sexually exploiting
6https://www.theglobeandmail.com/sports/soccer/former-english-soccer-players-break-silence-about- sexual-abuse-by-coaches/article33056765/
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young males by acting as their ‘girlfriend’, sometimes encouraging them to leave their home or place of care to live with them. This also involved women paying the young male for sex or by exchanging drugs for sex. It should be noted that young females are also targeted by female perpetrators for sexual exploitation (McNaughton Nicholls et al. 2014) despite little reference to it in the literature.
Having greater clarity regarding the pathways into CSE for males should enable greater identification of males as victims of CSE by professionals. It should alert them to the nuances and concerns surrounding a young males’ relationship with someone else where this is likely to be exploitative. If communicated to young males it can facilitate their own recognition of
exploitative relationships and hence, their disclosure as a victim. These descriptions of manifestations of CSE have set the context for my later analysis of how they contribute to or impede the recognition of CSE in males. The next sub-section firstly, contextualises the terms disclosure and identification, given their centrality to this study.
2.8 The significance of ‘disclosure’ and ‘identification’ in the context of CSE
The core elements of this thesis are those of ‘disclosure’, ‘identification’, and young males in the context of CSE. This sub-section examines what the literature has stated regarding recognition, before considering, in the next, what is distinctive for males within this discourse. However, to emphasise the critical importance of recognition in the context of CSA/CSE, I will briefly draw upon knowledge regarding its impact upon its victims.Bovarnick et al. (2017) highlights the potential health impacts as a result of CSE. These include: substance misuse, self-harm, depression, personality disorders, eating disorders, physical injury, sexually transmitted infections, pregnancy/termination, suicide and post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). In particular, Bisson (2009) argues that PTSD sufferers can develop:
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…pathological fear structures characterized by excessive response elements such as avoidance, physiological reactivity, and resistance to modification. (Bisson, 2009, p.290).
As noted in sub-section 2.4, CSE is an issue that predominately affects young people in their teenage years (Beckett et al 2017). Considering adolescence as a time when there is increased brain development, either positive or negative experiences and the extent of support available to the young person can have a lasting impact. Adolescence, therefore:
…represents a period of increased vulnerability during which the risk of experiencing trauma is particularly high…but the young people’s ability to adaptively cope with that trauma is particularly fragile. (Barnardo’s, 2014, p.1).
Breslau et al. (2014) found the highest rates of PTSD were discovered in young people who had been sexually assaulted or raped, irrespective of their gender. Moreover, Finkelhor et al. 2007, had previously argued that young people who have been sexually traumatised in their
adolescence are at greater risk of re-victimisation compared to those who have experienced multiple other traumas.
An increased risk of suicide as another impact of CSE was reported to be influenced particularly by depression and substance misuse, with a passive acceptance of death, (Barnardo’s 2014). The Independent Inquiry into CSA (IICSA, 2017) recorded that many studies have found stronger correlations with suicide attempts by male than female survivors of CSA, with boys thought to be ten times more likely than their non-abused counterparts to attempt suicide, compared to half that for girls (Fisher et al. 2017). O’Riordan and Arensman (2007) argued this is partly due to the fact that females possess different and stronger coping mechanisms than males which serve as a protective factor.
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Many have reported on impacts of CSE/CSA beyond those of the victim and their physical and psychological being with the potential to impact every aspect of their lives including the potential social, educational, and economic implications manifesting in social isolation, and risks in entering unhealthy relationships (Barnardo’s, 2014; Health Working Group Report on CSE, 2014; Fisher et al. 2017). All of these factors can have a short or long-term economic impact on the young person, incurring drug debts, unable to attend school, training, or work, stealing to meet their basic needs, and/or unable to find or maintain accommodation.
An understanding of the impact of CSE on young people’s cognitive, social, and emotional
functioning, their family and the wider impacts is crucial to the efforts to improve identification and disclosure of the issue, however, the scope of this study does not permit examination of the depth of impact, suffice to highlight the significance of such assaults upon young people at their stage of development. Whilst the knowledge surrounding PTSD and other manifestations of CSE helps inform our understanding, within this discourse I also believe it is critical to remember that each experience is very much individual to that young person. Therefore, the success of interventions will be dependent upon this. Similarly, I believe, it has to be without argument that early
disclosure and identification of CSE in males (as well as females) should help reduce negative impact and increase recovery. Both will be considered in turn.
Disclosure
Allnock describes disclosure as ‘the act of making something new or unknown, known’. (2018, p.37). This refers to the child or young person making known their abuse. In the context of my study, by ‘disclosure’ I am referring to the victim making their sexual exploitation known. Significant to its understanding are the multiply determined factors that prevent disclosure happening. These factors relate to the unique characteristics inherent in a victim of CSA which they bring to the situation to interact with other factors, such as, community, cultural and societal influences, which can ultimately impact disclosure (Alaggia, 2010). Indeed, in a later review of studies on the state of CSA disclosure research Alaggia et al. found that:
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…contemporary disclosure models reflect a social-ecological, person-in-environment orientation for understanding the complex interplay of individual, familial, contextual, and cultural factors involved in CSA disclosure. (Alaggia et al. 2017, p.1).
Disclosure is seen as being significantly influenced by the age and gender of the victim. The interactive nature of the process is viewed as occurring within a relational context. It supports the inclusion of ecological systems theory as a theoretical framework for this study, examined in chapter three. Influences on non-disclosure are, therefore, seen to be multi-faceted, including: the fear of not being believed; being the subject of gossip; or a fear of circumstances worsening, for the victim and/or others, following disclosure (Paine and Hanson, 2002; Barter, 2005; Staller and Nelson-Gardell, 2005).
There is consensus amongst writers that disclosure is an on-going process as opposed to a single event, potentially occurring in concomitant or sequential ways (Summit, 1983; Sorensen and Snow, 1991; Bradley and Wood, 1996; Alaggia, 2005; Collin-Vezina et al. 2015). Two broad dimensions of CSA disclosure were identified by Collings et al. (2005), described as ‘agency’ and ‘temporal duration’. The former relates to a disclosure initiated by the victim, rather than
discovered by another person. The latter relates to the situation whereby, after withholding the disclosure, ambivalence about telling is followed by the victim eventually confiding in a trusted person. Disclosure can also occur in a myriad of different ways and is often indirect (Alaggia, 2004; Collin-Vezina et al. 2015). This can include a refusal to engage or can also be manifested through the engagement in other behaviours, such as, violence, drug misuse, and other forms of self-harm, and/or other risk-taking behaviours (Ungar et al. 2009; Hunter, 2011). Understanding of the disclosure process and method are important if professionals are to recognise disclosure in its various forms. However, some studies highlight disclosures are more likely to occur in a
‘dialogical context’ where victims have access to forums giving information regarding CSA, including prevention of it (McElvaney et al. 2013; Ungar et al. 2009; Hershkowitz et al. 2005).
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Identification
As with disclosure, it is important to provide meaning to identification in the context of this study. It was not possible to locate a definition of identification within the CSE or CSA literature; therefore, I have adapted the definition used above for disclosure and applied it to identification for the purpose of my study. Hence, I define identification as ‘the act of the professional making something new or unknown, known in relation to CSE or heightened risk of CSE’.
The crucial significance of identification is based on the fact that most victims of CSE do not self- identify as victims or disclose their experiences of exploitation. Professionals’ identification of heightened risk and understanding of disclosure factors and processes are, therefore, critical in order to prevent the exploitation occurring and, if it does occur, facilitate earlier disclosures. This requires skills, knowledge, and a professional curiosity to accurately assess risk factors in the individual circumstances of a young person (Beckett et al. 2017).
Similar to disclosure, cognisance should be taken of the unique characteristics which individual professionals bring to the process which will determine their ability or willingness to identify CSE in victims. Therefore, I suggest that, as Alaggia et al. (2017) describe disclosure, the process of identification also reflects a social-ecological, person-in-environment orientation for understanding the complex interplay of individual, contextual, and cultural factors involved in disclosure.
There should also be acknowledgement of the difficulties in recognising issues related to CSE, the nature and context of which is dynamic and changing with new understandings. Nevertheless, because immediate impact and long-term consequences of any form of child abuse can be devastating, early identification is critical (Beckett et al. 2017), as is timely access to support services (Alaggia, 2017).