Perfiles y datos

The development of the Conceptual Framework illustrated above allows the research to follow a similar approach to that used by Hackman and Oldham (1975a; 1976;

1980) by using their theoretical framework and applying it to the experiences of student interns. By developing the structure in this way, it enables the research to posit objectives that will guide the fieldwork and address the aims of the thesis. The outcomes of these objectives will arise through a process of primary research and will be answered in the results chapters (Five through Eight). As can be seen in Figure 3.3 above, this study poses and answers six research objectives. Each of these is outlined below.

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Research Objective One:

To what extent do the Core Job Dimensions of an internship contribute to the Critical Psychological States proposed by Hackman and Oldham?

Core Job Dimensions Critical Psychological States

Figure 3.4: Visual Overview of Research Objective One

The first research objective examines the relationship between the CJD and the CPS as per Hackman and Oldham‘s JCM (1975a; 1976; 1980). Using a process of multiple linear regression (which is discussed in Chapter Four), the CJD will be used as independent variables (predictors) of the dependent variables (CPS). This will provide insights into the opinions of students regarding how influential the CJD are on inducing the CPS.

Skill Variety Task Identity

Task Significance

Task Autonomy

Feedback from the Job

Experienced Meaningfulness of the Work

Experienced Responsibility of the Work

Knowledge of the Results

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Research Objective Two:

To what extent do the Critical Psychological States experienced by students act as mediators between the Core Job Dimensions and the Affective satisfaction/

motivational Outcomes?

Critical Psychological States Affective Outcomes

Figure 3.5: Visual Overview of Research Objective Two

In a similar approach to the first research objective, a process of linear regression is used with the CPS acting as predictors of the AO of satisfaction (general and growth) and IWM. However, in supporting the pursuit for developing an original piece of research it is important to note that, when reviewing papers on satisfaction and motivational outcomes in the Literature Review (Chapter Two), it became clear that each of these studies concentrated only on ‗regular‘ workers in paid professions which covered a plethora of occupations (both blue and white collar jobs). Further

Experienced Meaningfulness of the

Work

Experienced

Responsibility of the Work

Knowledge of the Results

General Satisfaction

Internal Work Motivation

Growth Satisfaction

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examination of the research raised questions about how these may differ from the perspectives favoured by HTM students pursuing internships. It could be assumed that at this stage of their career development, students (interns) may well have different motivations to those of regular workers and thus their outcomes may not be considered the same as ‗regular‘ workers who have different needs/wants from their work situations. Therefore, as the research evolves, in addition to following the proven methodology and running tests in SPSS that mirror Hackman and Oldham‘s revised JCM (1980), the thesis will also seek an opportunity to observe if different results are unearthed if an alternative approach is taken towards the development of the model that may specifically reflect the behaviour of interns.

Thus, an additional set of tests will be run for these first two research objectives (and discussed in Chapter Six) that include all the CJD (including feedback from agents and dealing with others) to see if these become better predictors of the CPS and AO.

By adopting this revised approach, it is anticipated that a new model for intern‘s job design could be created that applies specifically to the motivation of HTM students at the case university.

This revised methodological approach will also present opportunities for further research beyond this study. If the results of these tests prove successful, they can be tested again on other samples of HTM students at other institutions following different internship structures.

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Research Objective Three:

Does the relationship between Core Job Dimensions and satisfaction/motivational levels differ by internship class?

Internship Class Core Job Dimensions Affective Outcomes

Figure 3.6: Visual Overview of Research Objective Three

See appendix 7 for a description of the internship classes taken at the case-study

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In addition to taking these two approaches with the study sample from the case university‘s students (research objectives one and two), the thesis also intends to probe deeper into the findings to seek out any inferences that may be applicable to sub-sets within this group. Therefore, two additional research objectives (three and four) divide the sample by internship class and emphasis area and investigate any differences using the statistical process of Multiple Linear Regression (discussed further in Chapter Four). The purpose of this is to see if any findings are specific to either a cohort of students undertaking their internship at an early or more advanced stage of their educational careers or if one particular occupational sub set (food and beverage, lodging, meeting and event management or tourism) shows specific characteristics that differ from the rest of the sample. This allows specific recommendations to be made at the end of the study which will direct employers in designing internship experiences that can maximise the satisfaction/motivational levels for those particular groups.

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Research Objective Four:

Does the relationship between Core Job Dimensions and satisfaction/motivational levels differ by emphasis area?

Emphasis Area Core Job Dimensions Affective Outcomes

Figure 3.7: Visual Overview of Research Objective Four

See appendix 8 for a description of the emphasis areas offered at the case-study

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Research Objective Five:

To what extent do internships enhance the classroom knowledge and educational development of HTM students?

Figure 3.8: Visual Overview of Research Objective Five

The final two research objectives posed for this study are of particular importance to educators and employers. In an appraisal of internships presented in Chapter Two (Section 2.3, Page 38), it is clear that in addition to students benefiting from these experiences, two other key stakeholders have a vested interest in the eventual outcomes. With that in mind, additional sections of the JDS were developed that are used to measure feedback from interns in two ways. The first is a measure of their application of education knowledge and academic performance. According to a number of authors, a successfully facilitated internship can reap many benefits relating to the application of theory to practice (Busby, 2005; Collins, 2002; Knouse et al., 1999; McMahon and Quinn, 1995; Petrillose and Montgomery, 1998; Van

Hoof, 2000; Walo, 2001; Zopiatis, 2007) while others propose that this has even greater utility in terms of their academic performance (Blair and Millea, 2004; Bowes and Harvey, 1999; Hauck et al., 2000; Little and Harvey, 2006; Mandilaras 2004;

Mendez 2008). Therefore, questions are posed in section eight of the JDS that will Classroom

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help determine the effectiveness and connections between classroom and experiential learning.

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Research Objective Six:

To what extent does an internship experience influence a student‘s academic/career choices?

Figure 3.9: Visual Overview of Research Objective Six

The second way feedback from the students is to be measured centres on their desire (or not) to continue to pursue a first destination career in the HTM related industries. The goal is to ascertain whether the internship confirms their decision to follow a career in this area or maybe has them question whether the service industries are an appropriate for them. The rationale for this stems back to external environmental issues discussed in Chapter One where it is documented that the HTM industries still struggle with issues over skill shortages, high turnover, productivity challenges and negative perceptions. The study will examine any relationships between the internship experiences and future professional decisions to see what factors may be influencing (positive or negative) their career choices.

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In addition, as previous research objectives will allow analysis to take place via the individual emphasis areas, this approach will also be adopted to see if certain career tracks present more successes/challenges than others. Again, this will help inform the conclusions and recommendations.

Chapter Summary

The purpose of this chapter is to present an overview of the Conceptual Framework for the study. In doing so, it utilises the findings of the Literature Review to formulate a number of overarching aims and objectives for the study which enable comprehensive insights to be gained into the design of effective internships. Thus, this study employs a modified version of both Hackman and Oldham‘s (1975a) JDS and their JCM (1980) to measure the motivation and satisfaction outcomes from a sample of HTM students at the case university. In addition, it explores a number of other outcomes including relationships between learning in the classroom and experiential education (in the form of internships) as well as examining the influences of these experiences on a student‘s career choice.

Having outlined the Conceptual Framework, the following chapter provides a detailed insight into the research methodology that will be used to address the aims and research objectives posed for this study.

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Chapter Four

Research Methodology

Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to discuss and justify the methods selected to facilitate the empirical research for this study. It commences by providing an overview of the research paradigms considered, before offering a justification as to which specific approach is selected to address the thesis‘ aims and objectives. In doing so, the chapter examines the data collection methods utilised for undertaking the primary research and delineates the validity of these methods explaining how each contribute toward the findings and research objectives posed in Chapter One. The Methodology concludes by outlining any perceived problems in the research and discusses how these problems will be addressed.

Through an extensive review of the literature associated with experiential education (Chapter Two), it is clear to see that if managed correctly, the process of learning through practice (in the form of internships) can have significant benefits to a number of direct and indirect stakeholders. Specifically, this inquiry will be conducted through the perceptions of students, who are purported by many (Busby et al., 1997;

Busby, 2005; Coco, 2000; Leslie, 1991; Leslie and Richardson, 2000; Petrillose and Montgomery, 1998; Mulcahy, 1999; Walo, 2001; Zopiatis, 2007) as the primary beneficiaries of professionally facilitated internships.

There are a number of ways to assess these experiences to determine how successful they may be. In a similar way to the examination of regular workers, employers have to work with students to identify a number of cause and effect

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scenarios to understand what drives low motivation, satisfaction and unplanned labour turnover in their operations. Although recognising there are a number of reasons why students may become disillusioned with their work and possibly question their career choices, this thesis will hone in on the design of their work and specifically the job characteristics they experience as part of their internship. Their perceptions of these job characteristics will be reviewed in the context of how they impact personal satisfaction/motivational levels and ultimately influence conclusions drawn on the value of the internship in the wider learning and career development process. Therefore, in order to provide clarity and direction to the research that underpins this study, the methodology will be charged with addressing the five aims of this thesis:

Research Aims

 To appraise the likely benefits and drawbacks associated with

experiential learning to stakeholders within the tourism and hospitality

management environs.

 To test the applicability of Hackman and Oldham‘s (1975a) job characteristic model as a measurement tool for assessing the value of students‘ internship experiences.

 Examine the relationship between job design characteristics (experienced

through work based internships) and perceived student satisfaction/motivation levels based on internship class and emphasis area.

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 Examine how influential experiential learning experiences are on the contribution to a students‘ educational development in the field of HTM.

 Determine how influential internships experiences are on future decisions students make about their academic/career choices.

Prior to examining and selecting the appropriate research and data collection techniques for this thesis, it is important to first offer an overview of the methodological framework which underpins the study. According to Brotherton (2008), before embarking on a process of data collection, a strategy or methodology for that research should be formalised in order to outline, for the reader, which methods will be needed to deliver on these aims of the project. Guba and Lincoln (1994), suggest this process starts with understanding the basic beliefs that define a particular research paradigm.