Planteamiento de la problemática

While respecting the breakdown of responsibilities envisaged in various EU treaties, the OMC is a way of spreading knowledge of best practices and achieving a greater convergence towards the main EU goals. It is a new form of cooperation for Member States based on a fully decentralised approach using variable forms of partnerships and designed to help them progressively to develop their own policies. It is based essentially on:

priorities and benchmarks agreed across Member

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States;

benchmarking exercises to gauge the progress of EU

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Member States towards achieving the objectives and benchmarks set;

identification of examples of good and best practices;

•

finding effective and practical ways to share best

•

practices through peer review exercises.

Box 1. _{Characteristics and processes of the}

The OMC is open as regards the education- policy players and the modifications and learning processes to be put in place. The type of coordination provided for by the OMC relies on ‘persuasiveness, moral competition and an obligation to provide public justification in the event of sustained deviation from the jointly agreed guidelines instead of tough sanction tools’ (Schmid and Kull, 2004, p. 6).

Nevertheless, caution must be exercised in evaluating the introduction of the OMC since, in addition to the major advantage that it offers the Member States great freedom of action, it

also conceals disadvantages and fails to resolve the fundamental problem of evaluating learning outcomes via indicators as assumed quality characteristics: ‘it is not merely an economic growth factor that lies behind “human capital”, but people with emotions and desires. Even at European level, education must not simply promote digital knowledge and IT skills, without taking account of the specific moral, spiritual, context-dependent, social and individual capacities, the creativity and innovativeness, the quality, skills and experience of individuals’ (Bektchieva, 2004, p. 76).

The March 2000 Lisbon Summit aimed to ensure, among other things, the employability of European citizens of working age. Therefore the EU set the following goals: to make employees and companies more adaptable; to bring more people onto the labour market for a longer period; to increase investment in human capital more effectively and more efficiently (partly by lifelong learning); and to improve governance, to improve the introduction and implementation of measures.

The most important policy concept for promoting the prosperity of the EU and competitiveness via employability is investment in a knowledge- based society and hence the promotion of lifelong learning (Alexiadou, 2005, p. 128 et seq.; European Commission, 2005b). At the heart of the concept is learning throughout the entire lifespan, to improve knowledge, skills and competences (KSC) for personal, civil, social and work-related purposes. Lifelong learning involves formal, non- formal and informal learning, as well as active citizenship, self-confirmation, social inclusion and professional, vocational and work-related aspects (Leney et al., 2004, p. 21). Several innovative educational concepts and ranges of provision are being developed and put in place with a view to implementing and actively promoting lifelong learning. They include:

the development/imparting of key skills (a)

opening the doors to the knowledge society, including the imparting of entrepreneurial skills;

systematic approaches covering all forms (b)

of learning, all those involved and the entire lifespan; one example is the development of a credit transfer system covering not only higher education but also initial VET (IVET) and continuing VET (CVET), and non-formal and informal learning;

learner-focused approaches, in which (c)

measures and action programmes are implemented primarily from the perspective of the learner, and with the use of new technologies and media;

approaches in which motivation to learn is (d)

to the fore and corresponding measures, especially the aim of ‘learning to learn’, are adopted;

approaches covering the multiple aims of (e)

education policy, such as learning for one’s own self-realisation, personal development, and economic, social and cultural goals (Alexiadou, 2005; Coulby, 2005; OECD, 2005c, p. 33).

This is the context in which the Barcelona European Council (2002) determined to make European education and training systems a world quality reference by 2010 with lifelong learning. But some of the countries involved lack fundamental elements, such as:

the preconditions for high-quality training, e.g. (a)

via innovative and up-to-date teaching/learning methods (Buchberger and Buchberger, 2002; Buchberger et al., 2000);

high status and role for teachers/trainers, who (b)

constitute a key element for lifelong learning and are active in the grey zone between advice on learning and teaching/instruction (OECD, 2005a);

the development, use and uninterrupted (c)

improvement of quality assurance systems (OECD, 2005b, p. 75 et seq.);

information, advice, support and increased (d)

interchangeability of the various education channels (European Commission, 2005b, p. 18 et seq.; Cedefop, Tessaring and Wannan, 2004, p. 4).

These points are important to ensure the provision of high-quality education to promote lifelong learning. Minimal cross-border mobility and inadequate social integration are obstacles to their improvement. Against this background, certain priorities for vocational development have been established (reducing the number of low- skilled workers, promoting CVET, increasing mobility, ensuring investment in the quality of CVET and ensuring the quality of appropriately trained vocational trainers) (Cedefop, Tessaring and Wannan, 2004, p. 7 et seq.).

The need for action to be taken on these priorities is apparent from the many years of structural unemployment resulting from sustained labour-market imbalances, as expressed in high unemployment accompanied by a lack of highly skilled workers. In 2006 a total of 7.8% of the overall EU population of working age were unemployed. The figure rises to 17.5% for the under-25s. There is a marked imbalance depending on the qualification level: low qualified (ISCED 0-2), 11.4%; average qualification level (ISCED 3-4), 8.1%; highly qualified (ISCED 5-6): 4.6% (Eurostat).

In addition to these structural issues, demographic changes are also important. By 2050 the average age of the EU population will increase to 45, from 39 in 2000. Between 2004 and 2030, the number of 15-54 year-olds will fall by 33.6 million. atAt the same time, the number of older people of working age, between 55 and 64, will rise by 14.5 million (Cedefop, Tessaring and Wannan 2004, p. 21; Eurostat, 2005).

This problem cannot realistically be resolved by promoting worker mobility, for example via study visits, foreign language teaching, CVET outside the home country or financial incentives for vocationally-oriented visits to other countries; only approximately 2% of the EU population of working age live permanently outside their country of origin and are in paid employment. Instead, further developments are needed to increase the number of employees and employability in general. The measures and strategies designed for this purpose include:

labour-market and employment policy meas- (a)

ures, i.e. active labour-market policy with train- ing components and political strategies in human resource development (including in Austria, Belgium, the Czech Republic, Den- mark, Germany, Greece, Liechtenstein and the UK);

continuing training measures for older workers (b)

for the recognition of non-formal and informal learning and qualifications programmes designed to lead to qualifications via second- chance schooling, including continuing training in enterprises and in which the social partners are involved in the programme activities; the countries involved include Belgium, Estonia,

Ireland, Greece, France, the Netherlands, Austria and Finland;

wide-ranging lifelong learning provision (c)

involving the use of new media such as distance learning and e-learning (e.g. Austria, the Czech Republic, Estonia, Italy, Latvia, Liechtenstein and Sweden);

training or lifelong learning provision for those (d)

not active in the labour market, i.e. qualifications measures, vocational reintegration programmes for women, and programmes for people over 50 (e.g. Ireland, Austria and the UK) (Cedefop, Tessaring and Wannan, 2004, p. 43).

2.1.

Lifelong learning

Lifelong learning is seen as an opportunity to develop one’s personality, to assure and extend continuing earning capacity, and to improve and stabilise individuals’ employability and employment. It serves both to reduce disadvantages and to provide the economy with an adequate number of potential skilled workers.

Skills development is a key element of lifelong learning strategy, making a contribution both to employability and to the demands of a learning society; an absence of skills may lead to unemployment, disadvantage or social exclusion. For this reason, all European countries offeringoffer a range of measures based on various political strategies and exerting different influences on the promotion of lifelong learning.

As yet there is no uniform definition of lifelong learning to which all concepts and strategies relate. Instead, the strategy is geared to the idea of promoting learning by all individuals at all stages of life and in all spheres of life, and in the most varied learning venues and in diverse forms. Thus lifelong learning is both a guideline for, and an objective of, education policy (BLK, 2004, p. 9 et seq.; OECD, 2005c, p. 5).

Competences or their development is a key concept in lifelong learning. Here, competences can be understood as a pattern of knowledge, skills and attitudes called for at particular stages of life and in particular phases.

Concepts of lifelong learning involve differences in the way in which learning is imparted: the Unesco concept of éducation permanente (Faure et al., 1973) seeks to combine education and employment, while the concept of recurrent education put forward by the OECD (Kallen and Bengtsson, 1973) and the Council of Europe focuses on alternation between phases of education (usually in institutionalised form) and employment. Thus the latter concept represents an integrated approach, with lifelong education/training as a process in which individuals endeavour to develop further and to integrate personal, social and vocational skills throughout their life, ultimately to play a part in improving their own quality of life and in society (Knoll, 1983, p. 282).

At the heart of all the Council of Europe’s documentation lies the strengthening of democracy and human rights by supporting individuals and their ability to take responsibility for themselves (Bîrzéa, 2000, p. 15; Council of Europe, 1971, p. 13 et seq.).

The OECD concepts differ in this respect. In accordance with the OECD’s remit, its earlier considerations centred on increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of education and training measures and investment, and hence on assuring equal access to education and training, for example via the concept of recurrent education (Kallen and Bengtsson, 1973), which is clearly linked to the human capital approach. The aim of recurrent education was to modify the education and training system, so that all individuals would be offered access to formal education and training throughout their lives (Tuijnman and Boström, 2002, p. 99).

When the concept was further developed in 1996 into ‘lifelong learning for all’, several lifelong learning objectives, strategies and financing issues were cited. Key points included support for personal development, reinforcement of democratic values, cultivation of social life in the community and the promotion of innovation, productivity and economic growth (OECD, 1996, p. 15). A further question raised was that of the costs of, and return on, investment in education for individuals, employers and governments (OECD and BMBF, 2003, p. 84 et seq.; Wurzburg, 2003, p. 7 et seq.). For example, investment in lifelong learning and in human resources should pay off first in terms of covering actual costs (economic sustainability) and, second, in terms of value added from financial sustainability (Wurzburg, 2003, p. 3; OECD and BMBF, 2003, p. 82). Thus the OECD calls for cofinancing by various participants (learners, the political world, entrepreneurs).

The approaches adopted by Unesco concentrated from the outset on objectives in education, science, culture and

information, and are aimed at assuring peace and prosperity. Seen from this perspective, lifelong learning is based not so much on the structure and architecture of a particular education system, but on implementation of a philosophical principle as regards the organisation of education (Tuijnman and Boström, 2002, p. 59). The central proposition is that learning processes do not have to be tied to institutional education systems, but can take place in any (formal, non-formal or informal) context. Thus the stated aim is to facilitate learning processes in various contexts and by various routes, including their accreditation and certification.

The principles of the European Commission’s education policy on lifelong learning are set out in documents such as Memorandum on lifelong learning (European Commission, 2000c), the Communication on Making a European area of lifelong learning a reality (European Commission, 2001a) and the 2010 work programme (Council of the EU, 2002a, 2002b). Key areas are the assurance of basic qualifications for all and increased investment in teaching and learning methods.

With regard to educational practice, a call is made for enhanced cooperation between the players in all areas and the creation of gateways between different education systems and between elements of education systems (European Commission, 2000c, p. 12).

As policy decisions evolved in recent years, guidelines for education and training were formulated, incorporating the European employment strategy and the involvement of the social partners and youth. The 2010 work programme sets out several strategic objectives, to achieve the goals of lifelong learning in the context of education and training. These objectives include:

• improving the quality and efficiency of education and training

systems in the EU;

• easing access for all to education and training;

• opening up education and training systems to the wider world

(Council of the EU, 2002a, p. 7 et seq.).

This outline of the development of the concepts involved in lifelong learning shows how they have increasingly converged. This is apparent, for example, from the fact that the organisa- tions have increasingly discussed the other concepts of and proposals for lifelong learning. It can be assumed that market internationalisation and globalisation trends are also affecting education, obliging organisations to cooperate more closely. The similar requirements in the various EU Member States can be seen as evidence that the concepts involved in lifelong learning are converging.

Box 2. _{History of the concept of lifelong learning}

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