One aspect of Freud’s analysis of pathology was developmental. Here, he ad- dressed the questions of why an individual would develop pathology and why it would be a pathology of a particular type. This analysis is closely related to
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an idea you already have learned about, namely, Freud’s theory of psychosex- ual stages of developmental (see Chapter 3). At any given developmental stage, the individual may experience a failure in the development of the instincts. Such failures are called fi xations . If individuals receive so little gratifi cation during a stage of development that they are afraid to go to the next stage, or if they receive so much gratifi cation that there is no motivation to move on, a fi xation will occur. If it does, later in life the individual will try to obtain the same type of satisfaction that was appropriate at the earlier stage (i.e., the one at which the fi xation occurred). For example, an individual fi xated at the oral stage may, as an adult, seek oral gratifi cation in eating, smoking, or drinking.
A developmental phenomenon related to that of fi xation is regression . In regression, the individual seeks to return to an earlier mode of satisfaction, an earlier point of fi xation. Regression often occurs under conditions of stress, so that many people overeat, smoke, or drink too much alcohol only during peri- ods of frustration and anxiety.
Since there are three distinct stages of early childhood development—oral, anal, and phallic—three personality styles may result from fi xations (Table 4.1). The characteristics of the oral personality type, which results from fi xation at the oral stage of development, involve themes of taking things into, toward, and for oneself. Oral personalities are narcissistic, that is, interested only in themselves. They do not have a clear recognition of others as separate and valuable entities. Other people are seen only in terms of what they can give (feed). Oral personalities are always asking for something, either in terms of a modest, pleading request or an aggressive demand.
The anal personality , which stems from fi xation at the anal stage of develop- ment, refl ects a transformation of gratifi cations of anal impulses in the child- hood years. In general, the traits of the anal character relate to anal-stage processes that have not been completely relinquished. The important processes at that stage are bodily processes (accumulation and release of fecal material) and interpersonal relations (the struggle of wills over toilet training). Tying the two together, the anal person sees excretion as symbolic of enormous power. That such a view persists is shown in many everyday expressions, such as the reference to the toilet as “the throne.” The change from the oral to the anal character is one from “give me” to “do what I tell you,” or from “I have to give you” to “I must obey you.” The anal character is known by a triad of traits, called the anal triad: orderliness and cleanliness, parsimony and stinginess, and obstinacy. The emphasis on cleanliness is expressed in the saying “Cleanliness is next to godliness.” The anal-compulsive personality has a need to keep Table 4.1 Personality Characteristics Associated with Psychoanalytic Personality Types
Personality Type Personality Characteristics
Oral Demanding, impatient, envious, covetous, jealous, rageful, depressed (feels empty), mistrustful, pessimistic
Anal Rigid, striving for power and control, concerned with shoulds and oughts, pleasure and possessions, anxiety over waste and loss of control, concern with whether to submit or rebel
Phallic Male: exhibitionistic, competitive, striving for success, emphasis
on being masculine—macho—potent
Female: naive, seductive, exhibitionistic, fl irtatious
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everything clean and in order, representing a reaction formation against an in- terest in things that are disorderly and unclean. The second trait of the triad, parsimony/stinginess, relates to the anal-compulsive’s interest in holding onto things, an interest dating back to a wish to retain the powerful and important feces. The third trait in the triad, obstinacy, relates to the anal character’s infan- tile defi ance against parting with stools, particularly on command by others. Dating back to toilet training and the struggle of wills, anal personalities often seek to be in control of things and have power or dominance over others.
Just as the oral and anal character types refl ect partial fi xations at the fi rst two stages of development, the phallic personality character results from fi xation at the phallic stage, during the Oedipus complex. Fixation here has different implications for men and women, and particular attention has been given to the results of partial fi xation for males. Whereas success for the oral person means “I get,” and success for the anal person means “I con- trol,” success for the phallic male means “I am a man.” The phallic male must deny all possible suggestions that he has been castrated. For him, suc- cess means that he is “big” in the eyes of others. He must at all times assert his masculinity and potency, an attitude exemplifi ed by Theodore Roos- evelt’s saying, “Speak softly but carry a big stick.” The excessive, exhibition- ist quality to the behavior of these people is expressive of the underlying anxiety concerning castration.
The female counterpart of the male phallic character is known as the hys- terical personality. As a defense against Oedipal wishes, the little girl identifi es to an excessive extent with her mother and femininity. She uses seductive and fl irtatious behavior to maintain the interest of her father but denies its sexual intent. The pattern of behavior then is carried over into adulthood, where she may attract men with fl irtatious behavior but deny sexual intent and generally appear to be somewhat naive. Hysterical women idealize life, their partners, and romantic love, often fi nding themselves surprised by life’s uglier moments.