PLATO BALANCEADO

Despite these challenges, the literature supports the idea that DI can be taught usefully and effectively, especially after taking into account learners‘ needs, their level and the realities of their teaching contexts. Here, I would like to discuss the general teachability of Brazil‘s theory by putting the DI features in order (from the most to the least teachable) as the relevant literature argues.

3.3.1. Prominence:

Despite the fact that some non-native speakers tend to place prominence on the last item of an utterance regardless of the conversation requirements (McCarthy 1991, p. 98), there seems to be a fair agreement that prominence is one of the easiest features to learn (Dalton and Seidlhofer 1994, p. 81). Seen as one of the communicative needs of learners (Setter et al, 2005, p. 11), Celce- Murcia et al. (1996, p. 218) try to promote the teaching of prominence as ‗an essential part of oral communicative‘. A number of studies, e.g. Levis (2001, p. 47) and Jenkins (2000), support

this view. Jenkins (2000, p. 153) holds:

‗……teachers and students alike have far fewer problems with what is often referred to as the accentual function of intonation……..because nuclear placement operates at a more conscious level than the other aspects of the intonation system.‘

3.3.2. The tone unit:

Tone unit identification and production have been somewhat problematic. For example, Jenkins (2000, p.45) states that the failure of learners to segment their speech into word groups (tone units) reduces the time available for the processing of information. Similarly, Setter (et al, 2005, p. 11) take speech segmentation as one of the aspects that ―require focus from the perspective of discourse and communication”

While there is no single rule easy enough for identifying the boundaries of tone units in colloquial speech, some basic remarks can be given to students, at least by way of enabling them to progress towards better judgment on tone unit boundaries. Brazil (1994b, p. 15) attempts to encourage the teaching of this feature by claiming that „the end of a tone unit provides an

opportunity to take time to plan the next [which] tends to increase the likelihood that boundaries will be distinctly audible in the speech of learners.‘ Brazil (ibid, p. 15) admits that tone units

sometimes run in each other, but he believes that this does not affect meaning anyway. Brazil‘s view makes up, pedagogically speaking, for the difficulty inherent in tone unit identification, as reported by McCarthy (1991, p. 101), Brown and Yule (1983, p. 158), Jenkins (1996, p. 19), and Gussenhoven (1984, p. 97).

A second way to help is for the teacher to suggest the pause definition. Brown and Yule give some reasons for pause-defined units as better serving applied linguists, teachers and learners (1983, p. 161) such as that they are ―readily identifiable‖ and are also measurable by

instrumentation. Cruttenden (1986, p. 131), similarly, notes that syntactic structures are ‗probabilistic tendencies‘.

3.3.3. Key:

Generally, key is not seen as a challenging aspect. In an attempt to raise the importance of teaching mid key and low key, Dalton and Seidlhofer (1994, p. 88) hold that ‗Since key is a system with three functionally distinct categories, learners should also be made aware of the meanings conveyed by mid key and low key. For mid key, it will suffice to point out that this is usually the neutral or unmarked choice‟. The authors propose a pedagogical strategy for teaching high and low key, by means of offering „students utterances in which both key choices are possible, and to ask them to match them with appropriate discoursal context.‟

However, with regard to key identification, Warren et al (2008, p. 18) report Cauldwell‘s experience in having a problem with the identification of a speaker‘s key choice at the beginning of the speaker‘s turn, a point also supported by Brazil (et al. 1980, p. 100). This might be the only occasion where the identification of key might be challenging.

On the whole, however, the system of key is relatively straightforward and easily graspable, thus contextualised dialogues and situations can help in teaching it (McCarthy 1991, p. 115).

3.3.4. Tones:

Tones generally are seen more problematic for teachers and learners. Jenkins (2000, p. 152) holds that one problem is the difficulty ‗inherent in any attempt to teach pitch movement, regardless of the theoretical underpinnings of the attempt‟. Many authorities have talked about the difficulty of learning tones for both receptive and productive purposes; and Brazil (1994b, p.6) and Cauldwell and Allen (1997, p. 2) have already been quoted to this effect. These views suggest that tones make up the biggest challenge. The challenge is not only a matter of form; it is also a matter of function: Roach (2000, p.201) holds that by using DI as a framework for learning tones, learners turn out making too broad generalizations, possibly because they are very abstract terms (Beaken, 2009, p. 343).

With these difficulties in mind, however, it is reasonable to conclude that it is not impossible to teach tones. The teaching of these tones depends on learners‘ needs and learners‘ level of English. Bradford (1988) points out that the three tones (rise, fall and fall-rise) can be taught to advanced students who need the language for communicative purposes. Furthermore, Jenkins (2000, p. 133) generally raises the importance of motivation in learning pronunciation, saying that when learners perceive communicative relevance they become highly motivated to learn a particular feature. This view can reasonably also be applied to learning tones.

Also, it has been argued that the use of multi-sensory modes has positive effects on the teaching of pronunciation, including intonation (Verdugo 2006). Wrembel (2001, p. 65) enumerates some of these:

- Graphic representations (arrows to show pitch movement and pitch level…..) - Kinesthetic aid (moving the arm to represent pitch movement)

- Native speaker material (using native speaker recording to place salient features in contrast to each other)

All these remarks on the teaching of DI help to show that there are some practices which can facilitate the experience of approaching something as hard as intonation.