adopted, in both System 1 and System 2. They not only form the headings under which we can describe behaviour and its effects, they are also directly related to the potential policy strategies which can promote sustainable behaviour. ‘Abilities’ refers to the knowledge and skills required to display a certain type of behaviour, or to change existing behaviour. In addition, people will have personal reasons for adopting or aspiring to certain types of behaviour, which we term their
‘motives’. Behaviour is also infl uenced by people’s ‘circumstances’ (or conditions). Circumstances have a signifi cant impact in terms of the costs and benefi ts of various behaviour options. Finally, a person’s actual behaviour is determined by a series of conscious and unconscious ‘choice processes’ which take place in the brain. Those choice processes are undertaken in an associative or systematic way at the time that the behaviour is determined. Figure 3 (below) represents the mechanism of human behaviour based on these four key factors. In practice, the factors also have a mutual infl uence. Often, there is no direct relationship between any given factor and behaviour, but it is the result of a series of complex interactions between the factors. The following sections examine abilities, motives, circumstances and choice processes in greater detail.
Figure 3: The factors underlying human behaviour
MOTIVES CHOICE PROCESSES BEHAVIOUR EFFECT
ABILITIES
Homo economicus and The four main determinants of behaviour
Much government policy is based on the notional homo economicus, the consumer who makes reasoned, well-considered choices and always acts in his own (fi nancial) interests. Homo economicusHomo economicusHomo economicus considers all relevant information and weighs the costs and benefi ts (both immediate and long-term) of each alternative. He then selects whichever option will represent maximum utility. As he acts out of self-interest, this will be the option with the greatest personal benefi ts for him, against the lowest costs. Various policy instruments have been based on this behaviour, from price incentives and subsidies to penalties and fi nes. It is easy to determine costs and benefi ts, whereby the resultant choice behaviour appears to be clear-cut. In our diagram of the four determinants, this choice behaviour (‘weighing the options’) falls under the heading Choice processes. The knowledge which homo economicushomo economicushomo economicus gleans from the information he gathers falls under Abilities. His main (or sole) Motive is presumed to be self-interest: moral, normative or social interests play a secondary role at best. The CircumstancesCircumstancesCircumstances may be a setting in which the various options are clearly presented.
2.2 Abilities enable people to adopt certain behaviour
If people are to play their part in achieving environmental objectives, they must be able to display the desired sustainable behaviour. It will help if they understand the problem, know what contribution they can make, and are aware of the results of their actions. In addition, they must have the resources – fi nancial or otherwise – required to support the desired behaviour. In our model, these factors are termed ‘Abilities’, which we can divide into two subheadings:
• Knowledge • Skills
Figure 4: The factors underlying human behaviour: Abilities
MOTIVES CHOICE PROCESSES BEHAVIOUR EFFECT
ABILITIES
CIRCUMSTANCES
Skills Knowledge
A1 Knowledge
Knowledge may be defi ned as the degree to which people have (objective) information about environmental problems and risks, solutions, and behavioural options, and the degree to which they understand that information. For example, recent years have seen growing awareness of the environmental impact, in terms of carbon emissions, for which food production accounts, and most especially that of meat production. Consumer behaviour – the choice and purchase of food products – plays a signifi cant part in this respect. This has led to greater knowledge, enabling people to consider alternative behavioural choices. In the past, the problem and the role of behaviour was virtually unknown to the vast majority of people, who were also unaware that the solution lay partly in their hands. While information can help to fi ll gaps in knowledge, it is usually not enough to bring about behaviour change (Schultz, 1998). It is important to realise that the lack of knowledge can indeed be an obstacle to sustainable behaviour, but that the availability of that knowledge is not in itself enough to motivate behaviour change. Knowledge is only effective if people are indeed motivated to use it (Schultz, 2010), which will be more likely if someone has particularly strong pro-environment values.
A2 Skills
‘Skills’ determine the extent to which someone is able display the desired sustainable behaviour in practice. This may be subject to physical or intellectual limitations. For example, asking consumers to purchase only sustainable food products will serve little purpose if they do not know how to prepare those products. Similarly, a policy which discourages commuting by car can only be effective if people have a viable alternative: they must be able to cycle or be able to understand the public transport timetable.
2.3 Motives infl uence the propensity to sustainable behaviour
Motives infl uence a person’s behaviour either directly or indirectly: they are the drivers and determinants of human behaviour. The motives listed below can exert their infl uence via the associative system (System 1) or the systematic system (System 2). Motives go a long way towards explaining why people show certain types of behaviour, and to what extent. Motives therefore offer useful points of departure for policy development. The following motives are relevant to sustainable behaviour and are described in greater detail below:
• Values • Emotions • Beliefs • Attitudes • Personal norms • Social norms
• Problem awareness • Self-effi cacy • Response effi cacy
Figure 5: The factors underlying behaviour: Motives
M1 Values
Values can be defi ned as general goals, varying in importance, which serve as the guiding principles in a person’s life (Schwartz, 1992). Values are not a component of someone’s innate character but do refl ect the importance that he or she attaches to certain general developments and goals in life. They are formed at a relatively early age and remain stable over time (Feather, 1995). It is therefore diffi cult to change values. People prioritise values in different ways.
Four types of value appear to play an important role in determining beliefs and behaviour with regard to sustainability: biospheric, altruistic, egoistic and hedonic values. (Steg et al., 2012). Egoistic values are particularly signifi cant in the case of homo economicus. The more inclined people are to endorse values which go beyond their own direct self-interest (i.e. altruistic and biospheric values), the more likely it is that they will display behaviour with low environmental impact. People with strong biospheric values will probably eat less meat, take shorter showers, and show greater acceptance of environmental policy than those with marked hedonic values (Steg et al., 2014; Steg & De Groot, 2012).
M2 Emotions
Emotions play a signifi cant part in choice processes. People form an immediate impression – positive or negative – of the things that they observe and experience. They often do so long before there has been any conscious evaluation (Zajonc, 1980). Mental images of objects and events are inextricably linked with emotion (Bechara & Damasio, 2005).The emotions associated with a situation or event, particularly those which are conceivable, are based on past experiences. Once a