El poder político y su interés por condicionar el trabajo del periodista El

For VET to be considered successful and useful, it must be relevant to stakeholders. VET was identified by policymakers as a reliable method for creating socio-economic growth goals. They also identified VET as connecting its graduates to work opportunities. This view was often deemed to be taken for granted. Employers wanted VET graduates to be employable with relevant workplace skills. RTOs wanted to have a VET provision that was considered useful by employers. Trainees, of course, wanted to be employable. As reviewed in the literature, the long-held view that education does not create jobs is yet to firmly inform VET policy and practice at different levels of decision-making. Numerous studies strongly suggest that employment is a product of a solid marriage of sound macro-economic and social governance policies and actions. Luhmann and Schorr (1979) indicated that systems theory allows greater understanding of the relationship between subsystems in a society, their interaction, specific working principles and the way they establish a difference between themselves and their environment. When looking at VET as a system, the various levels on which it operates become relevant as well. VET needs to be understood from pedagogical and didactical perspectives. Studies also indicate that for the poor, and more so the unemployed youth, to disengage themselves from economic deprivation, there must be an enabling environment (Palmer, 2007). The enabling environment relates to both internal and external factors.

The internal enabling environment is one in which education and training are delivered, while the external enabling environment is critical for enabling VET beneficiaries to translate gained capabilities and competencies into economic and social returns. While RTOs are responsible for the internal environment (the quality of training provision), the external environment is dependent on several other variables, such as legislation, funding, streamlined implementation and the creation of a learning culture.

For Ali, private-sector RTOs being organised under an association has been very beneficial in terms of relevance:

The private sector has been formalised under FEMAC. The dialogue with government and industry helps the RTOs stay relevant through a pulse check of the needs of the nation and employers. The rating system differentiated the quality of RTOs and provided incentives. Those with three-star ratings and below received no funding, four-star ratings received specific funding based on quotas, while five-star ratings received unlimited funding, subject to funds availability. From 2015, government-based RTOs are also required to go

through the star rating system. It is not just about delivery but also the issue of funding that determines the sustainability of VET provision.

According to Ismail, while relevance is important, it is also about differing standards in VET provision:

Too many agencies and ministries manage their own VET institutions. There are different standards. There is limited authority and unclear roles and responsibilities. Curricula is different, delivery is different. The outcome is that there is no relevance to the working world, defeating the original purpose of providing employment.

The Singaporean experience was to build an evidence-based policy and practice in VET to stay relevant. As indicated by Chan:

In Singapore, it was only in recent times, the public policy action to support workforce development and to develop a comprehensive CET sector was initiated. CET was started with the formation of the Singapore WDA in 2003. Singapore had challenges building the infrastructure but has moved rapidly to build an evidence-based policy and practice in VET, referred to in Singapore more broadly as CET. This initiative ensured the relevance of VET provision to industry.

For Low, the key to remaining relevant was to manage changes happening at the global and national levels:

While the number of low-skilled workers decreased in the late 1990s and early 2000s, this was deemed to be major issue for worker development policy. Given that the Singapore economy was changing from a manufacturing one to a service-based one, the government had a serious look at both VET and employment policy. The abrupt change due to the impact of globalisation led to many being without jobs. Yet, the newer industry faced challenges getting talent. While unemployment was managed by retrenchment of foreign workers, it was still politically challenging.

Chris commented on the need for the reform process to be consultative:

Many agencies operating outside the relevant federal departments were brought in as part of the reform process. The development of the training packages was reviewed recently. The key was to involve industry in a more relevant and significant way.

Steven observed the differences among employers:

There is a view that large businesses have a greater voice than SMEs. The needs of small business are different. The environments are different. Policy implementation remains a thorny issue. With the reforms, hopefully the

challenges will be addressed and VET will remain relevant to all players within industry.

To Ali, the government has emphasised the need for industry to have skilled workers. This has been demonstrated with several reform initiatives, giving industry a greater say. However, he believes RTOs are only enablers. Employers and students are the key drivers; RTOs are facilitators.

Ismail stated that the drive towards creating a developed nation through Vision 2020, which clearly outlines national goals, infrastructure must be created to develop a skilled workforce:

The Eleventh Malaysia Plan identifies VET as a game changer for the future socio-economic prosperity of Malaysia. There must be linkage with national plans.

On the contrary, for Low, relevance is all about reducing the number of unemployed: Basic education in Singapore is guaranteed by law. Being a small country dependent on just people, the goal is to ensure every single citizen is skilled and employable. The goal is to reduce the number of unskilled workers and organise industry into sectors to ensure employability. Another goal is to promote portability and mobility.

For Steven, it is about a competitive VET marketplace:

The training market is open and funding is more diverse. Having a strong pool of RTOs is important, as customers should have choice. A competitive training market is a key goal.

The data from the interviews with the CEOs of RTOs indicate the need to stay relevant for VET to be successful. This includes making graduates employable, participating in a strong competitive training market, organising industry into sectors, linkage with national plans, building evidence-based policy and practice, managing change, ensuring adequate funding and finally, ensuring consistency of quality in VET provision.

As examined in the literature review, while employment is the product of economics and governance, the goal of any employment policy is to address unemployment and build an inclusive society, minimising socio-economic gaps. The main theory driving the approach towards building an inclusive society is vocational theory. Blankertz (1985, p. 108) stressed the importance of an educational concept that was oriented to universality and individuality against an education for industriousness—one that was likely to lead to class

applications because they may be perceived as education for the poor. His argument that vocational education should be freed from the grip of an historically shaped culture of vocation and life has resonated loudly in debates on vocational education (Gonon, 2006). The CA purports that freedom to achieve wellbeing is a matter of what people can do and be, and thus, the kind of life they are effectively able to lead.

While the aim of effective public policy is to identify challenges and resolve them, problems can emerge in countless numbers of ways and require different responses. With several stakeholders competing to advocate their positions and mobilising allies to support their stance, government must be goal focused. While VET is widely recognised for generating employment through skills-based work and creating a more inclusive society, there is a strong need for evidence-based policy and practice. Further, there is need for an internal and external enabling environment that is crucial for allowing VET beneficiaries to translate gained capabilities and competencies into economic and social returns (Jjuuko, 2010).