Políticas

2.5.2.1

Philosophical views

The belief that the arts can make people feel better goes back to classical times (Carey 2005, p. 96). Plato’s view of the arts was purely instrumentalist. In his Republic, he acknowledged the power of the arts in shaping one’s character, and argued that this power should be used by the state in order to benefit its citizens (Allen 2002, p. 19).However, he warned about the wiles and evils that the arts bring with them. He found that they imitate life, but do so deceptively because they present a false picture of reality. Because the arts have the capacity to stimulate human emotions, people tend to imitate them and are consequently led astray because of their dishonest representations. For Plato, the arts should indeed make people better, but in order to do so they have to be restrained, and they have to be rational and responsible. If they are not, they pose the risk of becoming politically subversive and corruptive to people, and should then be abandoned altogether (Allen 2002, p. 19).

In response to Plato, Aristotle in his Poetics argued in favour of the intrinsic value of the arts. He saw their emotional power as a good thing, because through them an individual can experience catharsis; a release of unsettling feelings (Allen 2002, Cowling and Institute for Public Policy Research (London England) 2004). In discussing the end of imitative art, he draws a sharp distinction between the arts viewed as useful and the arts viewed as pleasurable (Aristotle and Butcher 1895, p. 185). When the arts are perceived as useful, they are seen to offer the necessary means of existence and to satisfy material desires. Their end is subordinate to a superior end. Aristotle believed that the end of fine arts is rather to offer pleasure and rational enjoyment (Aristotle and Butcher 1895, p. 185).

The eighteenth century Enlightment brought the invention of aesthetics, and the idea that the arts benefit the individuals morally, emotionally and spiritually (Carey 2005, p. 96). This idea penetrated Western intellectual thinking, and led Hegel to advocate that the arts can ‘mitigate the savagery of mere desires’ by ‘fettering and instructing the impulses and passions’ (Carey 2005, pp. 96-97).

In the nineteenth century, there was a widespread assumption that the arts can and should improve people morally and emotionally (Carey 2005, p. 97). This resulted in the initiating of public access to art galleries. Those in places of authority believed that social tranquillity could be achieved by encouraging the poor to engage with high art. In their view, the arts experience would allow the poor to transcend their material limitations, and to forget their agitation and desire for a share in the possession of their superiors (Carey 2005, p. 97).

The belief that exposure to the arts produces moral and emotional advantages is still powerful in modern times. The philosophy of arts education is underpinned by the view that the arts can make students feel better and become better people. In his book The Arts and the Creation of Mind (2002), Eisner argues that aesthetic modes of knowing can transform our consciousness, improve our cognitive functioning and promote our personal growth (cited in McLellan et al. 2012, pp. 53-54). He espouses that, unlike other disciplines where ends are achieved through the manipulation of pre-determined means, in the arts ends follow means because the individual’s actions may determine the ends. He also offers a view of the arts as a therapeutic process that can result in enhancing a person’s freedom to self-expression and well-being (2002, cited in McLellan et al. 2012, pp. 53-54).

Different authors have argued in favour of the potential of the arts to contribute to sociability and social relationships. Ehrenreich gives the example of ritual dance to demonstrate how it aided the strengthening of the social bond in prehistoric communities:

To submit, bodily, to the music through dance is to be incorporated into the community in a way far deeper than shared myth or common custom can achieve. In synchronous movement to music or chanting voices, the petty rivalries and functional differences that might divide a group could be (…) forgotten. (2007, p. 27)

In his book What is Art? (1899),Tolstoy answered his own question by arguing that it is the communication of emotion among human beings. When the emotions transmitted through the arts are genuine and deeply felt, they can serve to unite humans.

In the opening chapter of his classic work of sociology, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste (1984), Bourdieu suggested that the arts are a means for pleasure. However, the types of pleasure vary according to the educational level and the social origin of the individuals. For Bourdieu, a work of art has meaning and interest only for someone who, because of her social origin and/or educational background, has the cultural competence to understand its codes (1984, p. 2). For the individual who doesnot possess these cultural codes, pleasure derived from the arts is ‘facile’ and is reduced to the mere satisfaction of the senses (1984, p. 6). For the individual who does possess these cultural codes, pleasure associated with the arts is ‘pure’ and is ‘predisposed to become a symbol of moral excellence and a measure for the capacity for sublimation which defines the truly human man’ (1984). Taking these into consideration, Bourdieu claims that there are problems

with the cultural assimilation of the arts in terms of potentially producing problematic social differences (1984, p. 7). He writes:

The denial of lower, coarse, vulgar, venal, servile – in a word, natural – enjoyment, which constitutes the sacred sphere of culture, implies an affirmation of the superiority of those who can be satisfied with the sublimated, refined, disinterested, gratuitous, distinguished pleasures forever closed to the profane. That is why art and cultural consumption are predisposed, consciously and deliberately or not, to fulfil a social function of legitimating social differences (1984, p. 7).

I agree that focusing on the children’s enjoyment of the artistic experience is one way of potentially escaping from the production of the social differences to which Bourdieu draws attention. By producing and focusing on natural enjoyment, my work attempts to avoid reproducing the problematic hierarchy that places the cultural acceptance of an artisitc product’s quality over and above of what is more important; namely the enjoyment and understanding of the profane which Bourdieu highlights as ultimately the basis for all art and culture in the first place.

2.5.2.2

Report findings

Between 1995 and 1997, Comedia, an independent research centre in Britain, undertook a long-term study of the social impact of art programmes (Matarasso and Comedia 1997, p. v). It drew on case studies the UK, Ireland, Finland, and New York, and included a wide range of amateur, semi-professional and community work (Matarasso and Comedia 1997, back cover). The research focused on participation in the arts, which was the area most widely claimed to support personal and community development (1997, p. v). Matarasso’s report Use or Ornament (1997), described the findings of the first stage of Comedia’s study. Some of the aspects of well-being that were reported to be enhanced are the same to those my thesis is concerned with.

Matarasso mentioned that social cohesion was born through the supportive and co- operative atmosphere that the arts fostered (1997, pp. vi-vii, 15). Other findings included the sense of happiness and pleasure that the participants allegedly had derived (1997, pp. viii, x). The report also revealed that involvement with the arts was an effective route towards enhanced self-confidence and sense of self-worth

(1997, p. x). As Matarasso explained, these feelings were connected to the sense of achievement the participants had experienced; their accomplishments changed how they felt about their capacities (1997, p. 15). He pointed out that their sense of achievement was not limited to an individual level, because ‘being part of a collective success gave people the same sort of pride as having made something of their own’ 1997, p. 15). Lastly, the arts reportedly helped the participants to find their own voice and to express themselves in a way that made them feel that they were taken seriously and that their ideas were appreciated (1997, p. 17).

In her book For Art’s sake? (2004), Cowling invited a number of authors to discuss the arts’ potential in achieving wider social goals. Hewitt introduced the notion of the ‘transformative power’ of the arts (2004, p. 19). He argued that it is their inherent value that allows for transformation on a social and individual level (2004, p. 19). He explained that people undertake arts activities because they enjoy them, and because they are vital to their physical and mental well-being (2004, p. 21). Muschamp drew evidence from arts’ inspections in UK schools to emphasise how students’ involvement with the arts led to the enhancement of their self-confidence and their

skills of working and of interacting with others (2004, pp. 27, 31). Equally importantly, the arts provided students with sheer enjoyment, a haven and release from school pressures, and encouraged a healthy shift of focus from themselves to

the artistic expression (2004, pp. 31-32). In the concluding chapter, Cowling called the arts ‘experiential goods’, explaining that this is because ‘the more you put in, the more you get out’ (2004, p. 137).

A research report by Jermyn called The Art of Inclusion (2004), was concerned with the impact of the arts on enhancing social inclusion. The report was based on fifteen participatory arts projects taking place in various settings in England, ranging from prisons to theatres, and from community centres to hostels for the homeless (2004, pp. iii-iv). The participants were people of all ages, ranging from older people to children aged under 5 (2004, pp. iii-iv). The report suggested that, through their involvement with the arts, participants experienced a boost in their self-esteem and

self-confidence because they felt better about themselves (2004, p. x). They also felt proud of their arts projects, because these were based on their own ideas (2004, p. x). Another outcome was the development of their social skills, with many of them admitting to having made friends through the arts projects, to having worked as part of a team and to having developed skills of trust, co-operation and listening (2004, p. 60). Lastly, most participants admitted to having experienced much enjoyment and

fun during their involvement with the project (2004, p. 61).

A 2004 Australian study by Bryce focused on whether engagement with school- based arts education programmes can have a positive impact on student learning. Four schools were selected to be involved in the study based on their good practice of the arts (Bryce 2004, p. 2). The study results stressed that exposure to the arts led to enhanced engagement in learning in several ways. Firstly, it contributed positively to students’ self-esteem and self-worth. This was particularly the case for those who were labelled as ‘low-achieving’ or who came from dysfunctional backgrounds. In

the arts, students were able to express themselves without having to read or write. Avoiding the initial discouragement of having to display weak reading and writing skills, they could enjoy the aesthetic experience and to learn through it. Secondly, involvement in the arts led to the growth of students’ social skills as they were able to work co-operatively with others in different tasks, such as putting together a performance. Thirdly, students learned to make plans and to set goals. These in turn led to experiencing a sense ofachievement (Bryce 2004, p. 2).

In a more recent publication, McLellan et al. (2012) offer the theoretical evidence of the impact of creative initiatives on pupil well-being. Given the role of the arts in fostering creativity, they look into the relationship between arts-based approaches and children’s flourishing. They conclude that creative interventions bring positive results for their well-being (2012, p. 10). Nevertheless, they draw attention to some important considerations regarding this contribution. Firstly, the perception of well- being that the institutions taking part in the research held, dictated their strategies for its implementation (2012, p. 71). Secondly, when the subjects in the curriculum emphasised outcomes regarding well-being rather than processes, students did not appear to be as motivated (2012, p. 71). This prompted the authors to the conclusion that:

It is not necessary to have special schemes to prevent bullying because in the course of this transformation pupils come to respect and care for each other as they grow in their ability to ‘manage things for themselves’. (2012, p. 72)

This of course contradicts the teaching methods of SEAL and SEE, which include the designing of lesson plans with set objectives to address particular problems.