Taking into account the above points by Shweder (2000), some academics have utilised the concepts of cultural relativism and cultural essentialism to further highlight the importance of understanding culture when researching FGC.
Cultural relativism refers to the idea that people’s culture should not be judged or interfered by those outside of that culture, as the aim is to understand practices and experiences (Abu-Lughod, 2002). Cultural relativism encourages acknowledgement that truth and moral judgment is culturally relative (Tilley, 2000; Cassman, 2007). Moreover, it holds that no culture is superior over another and that beliefs are relevant to the
individual and society. It proposes that each culture should be able to practise what they see as a norm, without other cultures imposing (Tilley, 2000).
According to Cassman (2007), considering FGC through the lens of cultural relativism is important as FGC still persists despite western intervention, which suggests current interventions do not fully understand why it continues. She highlights that westerners need to understand how valued, relative and relevant the practice is. For instance, Cassman discusses the concept of honour, which is a central theme of FGC linked closely to the motivations of continuing the practice. Cassman explains how this concept differs. In the west honour is usually tied to individual identity, compared to African societies, where honour often refers to honour of the whole group (Cassman, 2007).
Another point raised about the importance of considering cultural relativism is discussed by Bishop (2004), who highlights how western critiques of FGC map western beliefs about the clitoris and sex onto African women’s bodies. For many western women, the clitoris was symbolic of their sexual liberation, whereas in communities where FGC is practiced, the clitoris is not symbolic of this, and therefore FGC is rational within their web of beliefs (Bishop, 2004). Cassman (2007), mentioned earlier, also stressed the importance of understanding the cultural role of the clitoris in affected communities, as it is sometimes seen as a danger to men and new born babies and believed to grow into the size of a penis if left intact.
Whilst this argument for applying cultural relativism appears to prioritise cultural understanding of the practice before comparison or judgment to western practices and beliefs, some authors have highlighted the difficulties in doing so. For example,
Gruenbaum (1996) highlights the difficulties in being more neutral and acknowledging the symbolic value of FGC through a cultural relativist lens. She argues that upon hearing about FGC, people’s reactions are usually ethnocentric and prejudiced often calling the practice “barbaric” or “backwards”. Furthermore, terminology which is negatively laden, such as ‘genital mutilations’ used by Hosken (1982) or ‘prisoners of ritual’ by Lightfoot- Klein (1989) adds to the rejection of those affected by FGC.
Cultural relativism has been applied by feminists and scholars who focus upon human rights. According to Danial (2013), feminists taking a cultural relativist stance respect traditions and practices and they should acknowledge the high rate of alienation women face from their community if the practice was rejected. They would also acknowledge a high rate of conformity as FGC is praised by elders and peers, particularly when FGC is often seen as a condition for marriage, which is seen as a crucial part of adulthood. Danial therefore concludes that cultural relativism towards any practice, can serve as either beneficial or detrimental to individuals or a society when considering human rights and cultural rights. For example, on the one hand, applying a cultural relativist lens would be beneficial to the cultural rights of that community to practice what they believed in without being challenged. However, on the other hand, applying the lens of cultural relativism could have a detrimental impact on women’s health and wellbeing as it would continue without being questioned.
As for Cassman (2007), she warns that imposing ideals on African cultures, as some western feminists and human rights activists do, appear arrogant and even condescending. There should be caution not to culturally oppress people in the attempt to remove patriarchal oppression. Inversely, Walley (1997) questions if cultural relativism is
appropriate for a feminist and humanist response, as the lack of challenging and ability to be passive, therefore dismissing responsibility to interfere does not sit with feminist or humanist principles.
In addition to cultural relativism, cultural essentialism (which differs from essentialism) has also been noted as important to consider when researching the phenomenon of FGC. Cultural essentialism is the idea that “all members of a category of people share one or
several identifiable, defining cultural features” (Alvaré, 2015, p2). Grillo (2003) adds to
this definition that cultural essentialism views humans as being located within the boundaries of their culture which defines them from others; for example, those affected by FGC and those not. This branches from essentialism, the idea that people or things have a specific and inherent set of attributes from which they cannot be separated. This idea of essentialism can be seen in everyday phrases such as ‘boys will be boys’.
This approach can be problematic as it assumes culture is homogenous and that all people within a cultural group will practice, for example, FGC, whilst there is no evidence of such homogeneity. Palmer (2016) argues that essentialism is oppressive and dangerous as it prevents the way things are conceptualised being challenged, i.e. culture and gender stereotypes, because we view them as inherent and fixed. In addition, Dustin and Phillips (2008) state that cultural essentialism views non-westerners actions as belonging to their culture which assumes homogeneity and lack of individual agency, as they are judged as a group. This can misrepresent cultures and encourage stereotyping and othering. They add that cultural essentialism makes it harder to address abuse of women without stereotyping, and that both inaction and action on FGC may be viewed as racist. In this respect, they argue there has been a change in Britain in the past 20 years from an overall
acceptance of multiculturalism, which they describe as taking a cultural relativist approach in particular to underage marriage and polygamous marriages, to an obsession with abuse against women amongst minorities; FGC has been one of the practices debated and publicised. Whilst FGC may be framed from a western perspective as an essential cultural practice, it is not a homogenous practice.
In addition to this, Pedwell (2007) highlights the commonality of comparing FGC and western bodily modification practices particularly in feminist literature. For instance, some scholars have compared FGC to genital procedures in the west. For example, Meyers (2000) compares FGC and what is deemed to be corrective surgery in the U.S for children born with ambiguous genitalia. She highlights how in the respective cultures, both are seen as essential practices for females to obtain gender identity and status. This will be discussed more in the next chapter. This can be problematic as western genital practices such as corrective surgery and elective genital cosmetic surgery are not framed using a cultural essentialist lens but framed as women actively consuming cosmetic or corrective surgery. This difference in framing for western and non-western groups, in particular women, raises questions to how researchers and scholars frame agency, choice and autonomy in minority ethnic groups (Dustin and Philips, 2008).
Pedwell (2007) also explains that comparing FGC to genital cosmetic and intersex surgeries, is used to oppose racism and cultural essentialism, by highlighting similarities such as both being carried out for non-medical reasons and reasons linked to identity and aesthetics. Pedwell highlights two different approaches used by different theorists and within different theoretical frameworks to highlight and compare genital practices. Firstly, a ‘continuum approach’ of all body modification procedures on a spectrum
including FGC, and secondly a ‘analogue approach’ which highlights similarities but does not place them on a spectrum. Pedwell summarises that women who undergo FGC are viewed as victims in an oppressed culture where their sexuality is repressed. By comparison, western women are portrayed as consumers of cosmetic surgery, who are liberated and enhancing their sexuality. Pedwell argues that the way westerners historically fetishized the bodies of African women raises questions of cultural imperialism and ethnocentricity, and of who can represent women in affected communities. The following chapter will consider this argument and the concept of positionality in relation to my own research.