Potencial nacional

In this section I explore the Nature of IKS (Indigenous Knowledge Systems), the rationale for IKS to be included in the current science curriculum, the challenges and successes experienced as well as the concerns and reservations expressed by pre-service science teachers on the implementation of a science-IKS curriculum. Furthermore I will draw on reviewed and published articles to support this exploration.

2.7.1 Rationale for an integrated science-IKS curriculum

IKS it is seen as a knowledge system that constantly evolves over time and adapts to changes in nature and to the processes which force the change. Indigenous people identify with this idea of change. In respect to the South African context we perceive indigenous people to mean those that are mostly rural dwellers in particular geographical locations and have well defined cultural traditions. If IKS is taught in various institutions it could bring about a respect for indigenous people and a respect for the knowledge that they have developed over time. Our government prides itself on its democratic constitution which through its’ IKS Policy (DST, 2004) promotes the inclusion of indigenous knowledge as an inherent part of the economy since communities can generate an income from endeavours such as establishing places of interest for tourists and in turn improve employment opportunities. They could also be remunerated for their knowledge when huge corporations utilise their IK on medicinal plants to manufacture medicines and other herbal-based remedies. These pursuits raise the issues of intellectual property rights, ethics and laws protecting the rights of indigenous communities. IK should be explored by both teachers and learners alike.

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Tinnaluck (2004) postulates that “Western science and indigenous knowledge systems represent different knowledge systems because of their respective backgrounds and values, organising principles, habits of mind, skills and procedures, and how knowledge is used. The real challenge is to find mutual recognition and respect to work together in a complimentary manner…” (p.71). He further notes that” in such recognition, modern science and indigenous knowledge should be viewed as two systems of knowledge that can supplement, rather than compete with each other, or…they can work together intelligently.” Scholars like Hoppers (2002) and Jegede & Aikenhead (1999) supports the integration of indigenous knowledge in the school curriculum as a positive acknowledgement of the contribution made by indigenous peoples to the fabric of society and humanity.

In the latest South African Curriculum and Policy Statements (CAPS, 2011) IKS is included under Specific Aim 3 and more specifically Specific Aim 3.2: Relationship of Indigenous Knowledge to Natural Sciences (Life Sciences and Physical Sciences) and reads:

Examples that are selected (and that should, as far as possible, reflect different South African cultural groupings) links directly to specific areas like IKS in the Natural Sciences, Life Sciences and Physical Sciences subject content. The nation needs some healing after 40 years of discriminatory Apartheid practices and even after 20 years of democracy. The knowledge of different cultures through integrating IKS in the curriculum could go a long way to repairing the damage (DOE, 2003).

Le Grange (2007) explains that successful and effective integration of indigenous knowledge in science learning can only be achieved if teachers understand what integration of indigenous knowledge means and have the ability to integrate indigenous knowledge in their practice. Various reasons have been forwarded as to why teachers are not implementing this policy. Rogan (2004) offers the following reasons: (a) the pedagogy of teachers have not changed much since the inception of Curriculum 2005 (C2005); (b) teachers have a wrong conception of what learner-centeredness is and (c) teachers lack innovation and initiative in classroom teaching leading to a dichotomous perception between seeing curriculum as intention and seeing curriculum as practice. A major drawback or impediment in implementing indigenous knowledge in the classroom is perhaps a misconception or

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misinterpretation of what constitutes indigenous knowledge. Most teachers understanding are limited to what is read in a textbook. Teachers rely heavily on textbooks and other resources approved by the Department of Education for materials and science resources. A lesson on fossils for instance, in a grade 7 textbook had the intention of showing integration of indigenous knowledge and Western/modern science. However on closer inspection of the content textbook focussed on positivist science concepts with scant mention of the IK. Teachers’ limited understanding of indigenous practices also contributes to the limited or in some instances non-implementation of Specific Aim 3.

Ocholla (2006) posits that indigenous knowledge was marginalised by the negative and derisive manner in which it was often referred to: ‘primitive’, ‘backward’, ‘outdated’, ‘archaic’, ‘barbaric’. He also notes that the demeaning reference did not create space for indigenous knowledge’s integration with other forms of knowledge, commonly referred to as ‘western, ‘modern’, ‘scientific’ knowledge.

A serious problem confronting the integration of IK and Western science is the pedagogy employed in the classrooms. The teaching strategies that teachers employ appear not to provide a suitable pedagogical scaffolding framework for interrogating an integrated science-IKS type lesson. This could be attributed to the fact that many science teachers were schooled in the Apartheid era with its strong emphasis on Christian National Education (CNE). CNE was the ideology responsible for the transmission of Eurocentric values and cultures based on objective knowledge with assessment mainly implemented through rote learning and ‘pen-and-pencil’ examinations.

Teachers tend to view IK as an add-on to the notion of Western Science. The NCS and CAPS never intended IK to be in opposition to Western Science but rather to be shown as an alternative means of knowing and explaining scientific concepts. In a reflective diary report a teacher responded as follows ‘seeing the IK in science and the science in IK’ after attending one of the SIKSP workshops (Amosun & Ogunniyi, 2013). It is clear that what the curriculum intended and what actually happens in the classroom is different. Of concern is teachers’ perception that IK is irrelevant and unscientific. One should remember that the science teachers’ basic science foundations are rooted in empiricism. What cannot be

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observed, measured and explained why events happen in nature, cannot be accepted as science. Teachers tend to reinforce this worldview on learners in their teaching and learning strategies with total disregard for learners’ own cultural backgrounds. With the advent of democracy in 1994, South African schools have become more and more multicultural, which means many of the learners do not share the same Eurocentric worldview as those held by the teacher. Ogunniyi (1995) posits that “…science teachers play a key role in science instruction. They determine the success of the curriculum and consciously or unconsciously shape the nature of the information they convey to the students”.

It is vital that science and IKS not be dichotomized and seen as separate knowledge systems. Compartmentalizing of science content knowledge creates a lot of redundancy where learners might think that one concept only applies in one context and not the other, hence also making t difficult for both teachers and learners to recognise the science in their everyday lives and experiences. The integration of Dialogical Argumentation into IKS together with an open mind about the characteristics, values and assumptions of the nature of Science and the use of visual objects and aids are a winning recipe to achieve optimal learner cognitive understanding and appreciation of science as a world (Diwu & Ogunniyi, 2011).

IKS has a long history with recent documentation by historians, archaeologists, anthropologists and scientists. The IK (Indigenous Knowledge) is a source of knowledge that has kept man alive for millennia in the sense that it contributed to sustainable living and development (MacDonald, 2013). It covers a world of diversity of the human race. IK is as diverse as the people who have kept it alive for all this time. Indigenous South Africans, like the rest of post-colonial Africa, are struggling to redefine their identity amid centuries of stolen history and denigration of indigenous culture. Hodson & Hodson (1998) argues for a shift from a naïve constructivist view of teaching and learning science towards a social constructivist view anchored in the Vygotskian notion of education as enculturation. The idea being that learning science, learning about science and learning to do science for oneself requires an understanding of and an ability to use appropriately a set of culturally defined methods for conducting inquiries and a set of conventions and mode of discourse for presenting results. In order to introduce learners to learning experiences teachers should have a sound knowledge of scientific knowledge and scientific methods, inclusive of the historical,

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its social, economic and environmental impact as well as the social, moral and ethical issues for the individual and society.

The ANC government voted into power in 1994 has adopted the philosophy of Ubuntu by promoting the integration of indigenous knowledge systems into mainstream economic activities as a way of asserting African identity and bringing about African renaissance. They argue that only a holistic view of IKS implementation stands a chance of success, by acknowledging also that some sections of society are vigorously campaigning against such implementation especially in education. For example, where there are voices arguing for a positivist approach to science education, totally removing IKS from the curriculum and returning to the “Western” education system as a “way of improving results.” The silent assumption is that education incorporating IKS is either sub-standard or does not contribute any value to the economic development of the country. This perception runs contrary to current views about sustainable development. MacDonald (2013) argues for consideration to be given to sustainability as pedagogic practice with acknowledgment of the contribution of IK and socio-cultural activities. Carter (2008) and Glasson et al. (2010) supports this notion that science be seen through the “lens of culture” and indigenous knowledge. Since IKS is located in the context of a curriculum and has a suggested content component linked to the science curriculum as envisaged by curriculum designers of NCS and CAPS, an attempt at defining the terms ‘curriculum’ and ‘content’ is appropriate at this stage of discussion.

2.7.2 The educational benefits of integrating IKS into formal schooling.

According to Semali and Kincheloe (1999), IK has taken centre stage in educational and development discourse. The promotion of Western Science at the expense of (IK) has been criticised, resulting in new calls for recognition thereof. By including IK, the particular social identity of the learner is acknowledged. De Beer and Whitelock (2009) posits that by acknowledging the learners’ particular culture, science education can turn learning into a more positive experience for those resistant to studying Modern Westernised science. Learners will begin to value their own knowledge and be able to link it to other knowledge

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systems. Integrating IK into the formal school curriculum suggests that academic knowledge will be given equal place in the academic arena, “In this way, academic knowledge becomes a more integrated body of knowledge, embracing different forms of knowledge and thought” (Nnazodie, 2009).

IK integration into the curriculum may enable learners to recognise and learn from other groups lying outside dominant Western scientific cultures and who have made important contributions to fields such as agriculture, medicine and environmental management (Naidoo, 2007). The inclusion of IK may have the effect that learners will no longer see Western Science as being too abstract and irrelevant to their everyday life experiences. The educational benefit of integrating western science and IK is that learners would be able to use one body of knowledge to explain the other. In this way the two knowledge systems can complement each other. Kwofie (2009) agrees with this view of integrating IK and Western Science, “…since school science is based on Western models of education, educators must be well equipped to effectively implement a science-IK curriculum using DAIM as pedagogy”. To incorporate IK into science discourses implies that teachers need to be well informed about the concepts and practices of IK and how they can be integrated with Western Science. Nnazodie (2009) postulates that teachers must become researchers on IK and through this research, teachers will become familiar with the knowledge of the learners and develop better ways of integrating this knowledge in their lessons. Ogunniyi, (2009) is also of the view that an argumentation framework is best suited “to meet the demands of equitably by bringing two distinct knowledge corpuses together i.e. science and IKS”.