PRADOS-JUNCALES HALÓFILOS DE MARISMAS

Cross-cultural training (CCT) is regarded as an effective way of overcoming these obstacles and reducing failure rates in management (Black and Mendenhall, 1990; Bhagat and Prein, 1996). Some scholars (Earley and Mosakowski, 2004) introduced the term ‘cultural intelligence’, highlighting that cross-cultural competence is as important as IQ and EQ in the context of globalization. But critics have presented contradictory evidence, saying that CCT may have a negative impact on expatriates, so it is hard to assess its function (Black and Gregersen, 1991; Kealey and Protheroe, 1996). To establish the validity of CCT, Puck et al. (2008) organized a survey involving twenty German MNCs. Even though the research data did not support the positive effectiveness of CCT increasing the expatriates’ adjustment, it highlighted the important roles of language in helping the expatriates to improve their cross-cultural competence. Thus, the researchers suggest that expatriate selection should take language skills and language training into consideration in the developing programmes of MNCs, and tailored CCT was proposed on the basis of the expatriates’ personal characteristics.

Communication consists of three aspects, i.e., the contents (writing system), the tone as well as the speed(voice), and the body language while communicating. Research shows that in order to achieve the effectiveness of communication, the proportion of the word, voice and the body language should be 7%, 48% and 55% respectively. The effective communication should integrate these three factors together. Effective communication is a dynamic bilateral behaviour, which not only needs the message sender to clearly express the connotation of his/her information, but also requires the feedback. Therefore, the careful listening and feedback are of vital importance (2011(a,b), Xie et al,2009).

Communication needs skills. Weihrich & Koontz (1993) noted that the effective communication requires the skills as follows: the message given by the sender should be clear, practical and logical; the sender should consider the needs of the receiver and ensure the information could be understood; both of the two parties should pay attention to the factors like the tone, the diction, the context and the emotion; both of the two parties should be responsible for the communication effects. Putti, Weihrich & Koontz(1998)

thought that feedback should be the top priority. Only the careful listening can ensure the accuracy of the communication. Additionally, understood language, controlled emotions as well as moderate body language should be applied in the communication. DeCenzo & Robbins (2001) marked that simple and direct language should be arranged. During the communication process, the two parties should attach great importance to the feedback, the bilateral communication, the diversity of communication methods, a trustful and supportive communication atmosphere.

The thesis defines the communication skill as the flexible application of the communication methods. Based on the solid analysis, eight communication skills being selected as the variables to measure the effect of communication. Detailed variable classification are as follows (Table 3.2.):

Table 3.2. Definition of the variables of the communication skills

Variable Sub-variable Definition

Language Use the language you can understand, convey the information you are familiar with

X1 Language

Speed Whether you can accept his speaking speed or not X2 Listening Listening Whether you can be carefully understood

X2 Listening His thoughts He discusses in the consideration of your needs, and doesn’t talk blindly to his own thoughts

Chance Whether you have enough opportunity to express yourself during the communication

Emotion One’s emotion can be controlled and one can communicate in a smooth state

Situation Voice , tone as well as diction are consistent with the way and the content you talk

X3 Context of Utterance

Tone Whether his facial expression and tone can satisfy you or not Nonverbal

communication Nonverbal communication is well used. X4 Nonverbal

Communication

Moderation Whether you feel that his nonverbal communication is too overcautious or exaggerate.

Aim Have clear thoughts, aims as well as a strict logic while communicating.

X5 Logic

Logic Whether you think that he is logical or not. Explanation Whether he is reasonable or not

X6 Reason

View Offer sufficient proofs to demonstrate one’s own views X7 Communication

Method Cooperative ways

Take cooperative ways instead of adversarial ones and use mild language.

3.10. Conclusion

Culture and language are unique phenomena in human society. Their contents differ between different societies. Differences of culture and language mean that research into effective communications is necessary and valuable, especially in the epoch of internationalization, where capitals, human resources and technologies are transferred on a global scale.

Language and cultural barriers in industrial relations have attracted comparatively little research, especially in developing countries such as China. This research intends to consider culture and language barriers in China’s IRs situation, which will offer a new perspective for researchers.

This study, after a search from ratinale findings, is trying to set up a linkage between cultures, language resaerch and IR/HRM practice in the context of China's transition economy. Research objectives were the driving force to the connections. Hypothesis and research modules will be presented in the next chapter.

Chapter Four

Literature Review: IR and HRM Studies

This chapter continues literature findings from industrial relations and human resources area. Conceptual modules illustrated in this chapter are the essential base for further empirical research.