SUMMARY
6 PREGNANCY COMPLICATIONS ASSOCIATED TO OBESITY AND GDM M aternal factors, such as excessive body mass index and gestational weight gain among
Although Bourdieu’s own work on the journalistic field does not engage with the importance of the gender division, elsewhere in his work he
acknowledges its importance and key role in structuring social fields. In Masculine Domination he contends that sexual difference is the foundational division that underpins a system of ‘homologous oppositions’ (2001:7), which together compose hierarchical relations of difference. So male/female is the basis for outside/inside, public/private and a related series of dichotomies that permeate and underpin all social fields, ‘inscribed in the physiognomy of the familiar environment, in the form of the opposition between the public, masculine universe and private, female world’ (Bourdieu, 2001:57).
Structuring oppositions are inculcated into the dispositions of male and female subjects through social institutions, beginning with the foundational sexual division of labour within the family and continuing through the workings of
‘the church, the state, the educational system, and also in another order of things, sport and journalism’ (viii). Bourdieu is aware of the effects this
division can have on the world of work and the way in which it ‘authorizes and
favours certain behaviours that are technical and social but also sexual, or sexually marked’ (58). He suggests that a feminine habitus predisposes women to certain kinds of work because of the – ‘harmonious encounters between dispositions and positions’ (57).
Bourdieu’s thoughts on gender can obviously be applied to journalism, where as I have outlined, women are clustered in certain areas of the
profession but those who have used his work to consider the media have completely ignored this element. The only real acknowledgment of gender comes in Marchetti’s work on specialised journalism where he comments that:
The gender division of specialities reflects in a large part that of news consumers (the specialities defined as more masculine tend to be read by men and vice versa)or the social sector covered. The increase since the 1980s in the development of the specialised magazine press has thus
participated in the feminization of French journalism.
(Marchetti, 2005:74).
However this observation is never pursued and the subject division he describes is taken as self‐evident or natural. Bourdieu’s words on the gendering of the social world and its effects can be applied both to the journalistic field and the attendant academic work, as this passage illustrates:
All the calls to order inscribed in the order of things, all the silent
injunctions or muted threats inherent in the normal course of the world are, of course, specified according to the particular fields, and the difference between the sexes presents itself to women, in each field, in specific forms, through for example the dominant definition of practice that prevails within it and which no one would think of seeing as sexed and therefore open to question. (Bourdieu, 2001: 62)
Bourdieu’s words perfectly sum up the effects of objectivity as the ‘dominant definition of practice’ within the journalistic profession and the effects of the public sphere model in the attendant media studies scholarship.
Field theory’s failure to account for gender is explained by an
incomplete application of Bourdieu’s theoretical paradigm to journalism. The work on the journalistic field, as its title suggests, is focused on the structural and objectivist element of the field/habitus pairing. The paradigm of the field as a spatial metaphor composed of competing positions is embraced in this work, but its subjectivist correlative, the internalisation of these structures in the habitus is largely ignored. In the volume Bourdieu and the Journalistic Field (Benson and Neveu, 2005) the habitus is reduced to little more than a device for describing journalist’s education and its huge potential for illuminating gender or class positions remains untapped. Bourdieu sets out a tripartite system for using the concept of the field in social research, this involves analysing the field’s relationship with the field of power, mapping the
‘objective structures’ which compose the field and finally the habitus(es) of the agents within the field must be analysed and ‘the different systems of
dispositions they have acquired by internalising a determinate type of social and economic condition’ (Bourdieu, 1992:105). The existing work on the journalistic field neglects the final element of this schema in favour of its first two operations. This is particularly detrimental to a consideration of the field of feminine journalism where what is at stake is the interaction of a feminine habitus with the journalistic field.
Although the concept of the field dominates the recent Bourdieu influenced work on journalism, it needs to be analysed in conjunction with Bourdieu’s other key theoretical innovation the habitus. Bourdieu’s work seeks to strike a middle path between structure and agency and so transcend the
objectivist/subjectivist dichotomy. As Jenkins says the central theme of his work,
‘is the attempt to understand the relationship between ‘subjectivity’ – individual
social being as it is experienced and lived, from the personal inside out so to speak and the ‘objective’ social world within which it is framed and towards the production and reproduction of which it contributes’ (Jenkins, 2002:25). While concerned with the reproduction of society through its structures, he also seeks to understand how these structures are inhabited by social agents, he attempts to do this by combining his notion of the field with that of the habitus. The habitus is a system of dispositions, sets of thoughts and actions that individuals develop in response to the objective conditions of their existence, through a process of socialisation in the family, education and profession. Habitus is Bourdieu’s term for structures, rules and dispositions as they are embodied in human beings, the internalisation of external structures. These structures are internalised at the level of the body and expressed through its practices, ‘the concept of habitus does not denote just the process in which the norms are inculcated upon the body, but also the moment of praxis or living through of these norms by the individual’
(McNay, 2000:36).
The habitus is a particularly useful theoretical tool for the consideration of, the operation of gender within journalism, because in his 2001 book Masculine Domination, Bourdieu describes gender as the supreme example of the formation of the habitus. Gender, a socially constructed ‘cultural arbitrary’ composed of a system of rules, norms, perceptions and practices is inculcated into the agent by a long process of socialisation that results in a masculine or feminine habitus, in Bourdieu’s words:
It is only after a formidable collective labour of diffuse and continuous socialization that the distinctive identities instituted by the cultural
arbitrary are embodied in habitus that are clearly differentiated according to the dominant principle of division and capable of perceiving the world according to this principle. (2001:23)
A gendered habitus is created through the practices of everyday life, ‘femininity is imposed for the most through an unremitting discipline that concerns every
part of the body and is continuously recalled through the constraints of clothing or hairstyle’ (27). It produces a particular feminine habitus, which is expressed bodily in a feminine appearance and submissive postures and mentally through particular inclinations and dispositions. Bourdieu uses his notion of habitus to account for the way in which individuals internalize and invest in dominant social structures and the institutions that represent them. These dispositions are deeply ingrained over time and often make themselves felt, not at a conscious level, but as ‘bodily emotions – shame, humiliation, timidity, anxiety guilt – or passions and sentiments love, admiration, respect’ (39). This phenomenon explains why people remain attached to structures that objectively may appear to oppress them and why change may not occur even when formal obstacles have been removed. In Bourdieu’s view the Althusserian model, which offers the
possibility of liberation from domination by exposure to science, or feminism (see Chapter Three), forgets ‘the opacity and inertia that stem from the
embedding of social structures in bodies’ (40).
Gender provides the most complete example of the operation of the habitus, but its formation also works to produce a particular habitus within a field. So the journalistic field will produce, and be produced by, not only a set of approaches, values and practices, but also a particular journalistic body. We can see this process in action if we think of the stereotyped appearance of the Fleet Street hack or the fashion journalist. Social agents acquire the habitus that provides them with the skills necessary to operate within a particular field. All fields apply certain criteria to those who wish to enter them and to operate successfully the individual must absorb the structures and rules of their chosen field. We have seen this internalisation of structures at work within the
journalistic field where the objectivity norm comes to define a journalistic identity or habitus. The inculcation of these rules and norms produces actions that correspond with the structures of the field and in this way what Bourdieu called a doxic relationship emerges. Doxa are a set of core values and standards that form the fundamental principles of a field and that tend to be viewed by its
agents as taken for granted and accepted truths, when in fact they are true only within the existing conditions of the field with no inherent universal validity. So the newsmen of Tuchman’s study saw objectivity as an inherent and intrinsic part of their occupation rather than a strategic practice. Operating successfully within the field happens almost automatically, as Bourdieu says, ‘the agent does what he or she ‘has to do’ without posing it explicitly as a goal, below the level of calculation and even consciousness, beneath discourse and representation’
(1992:127). Bourdieu uses the term ‘illusio’ to describe this emotional and cognitive investment and belief in the rules of the game that define the field.
Agents are caught up in the game and implicitly believe that it is worth playing and that its stakes are meaningful and valid. In the case of journalism as Neveu suggests in relation to foreign correspondents, ‘the belief that journalism is one of the pillars of democracy – or more cynically that it allows one to be where the action is – gives the war correspondent the impetus to take risks’ (Neveu,
2007:339).
The habitus and field pairing bridge the divide between subjectivism and objectivism, because they are inseparable terms that depend upon each other for existence. The field is comprised of the agents operating within its boundaries, it only exists because its members possess the dispositions and actions that enact its structures so ‘the habitus contributes to constituting the field as a meaningful world’ (Bourdieu, 1992:127). By the same token in order to participate in the field agents incorporate its structures into their habitus, ‘for a field to work there must be stakes, and people ready to play the game equipped with the habitus that enables them to know and to recognise the immanent laws of the field, the stakes and so on’ (Bourdieu, 1993b:72). The habitus and the field are mutually constitutive effects that together work to reproduce social structures so that
‘when habitus encounters a social world of which it is the product it is like a ‘fish in water’: it does not feel the weight of the water, and it takes the world around itself for granted’ (Bourdieu, 1992:127). An analysis of these kind of effects is missing from field theory, nowhere is it acknowledged that men can only truly
access the perfect fit between habitus and journalistic field, ‘the fish in water’
effect. Within the journalistic field only those with a male habitus can operate with this kind of unthinking ease, as Steiner says, ‘men had already defined journalism in male terms. No wonder then that men, as males, could be comfortable with their work and their male identities’ (1998:158).
Field Theory’s almost total inattention to the crucial notion of the habitus explains its failure to account for the operation of gender in journalistic practice.
However Bourdieu’s theoretical model has been subject to feminist critique that suggests it has fundamental deficiencies in this area. Bourdieu is widely
perceived to have privileged class divisions over those of gender in his work and to largely have ignored feminism. His attempt to apply his methods to gender, Masculine Domination, did little to alter this perception. The 2001 work failed to connect fully with feminist scholarship, despite addressing many of the same issues as feminist anthropologists; most notably Ortner’s famous question ‘Is female to male as nature is to culture?’ (1974). However, Bourdieu did not consider this work in any detail, leading to accusations that he remained,
‘somewhat oblivious to the diverse range of important feminist work that has historized sexual division’ (McLeod, 2005:19). Beyond this failure to engage with feminism, Bourdieu’s work is problematic because of its seamless account of the creation of gendered identity and perceived failure to include any possibility for a political project that produces change. These problems have led feminist critics such as Butler to question the very basis of his theoretical paradigm.
The existence of two separate categories, field and habitus, is fundamental to Bourdieu’s attempts to overcome the subjectivist/objectivist dichotomy. The notion of an encounter between these two categories is invoked, ‘both to
separate and to render dynamic the productive convergence of the subjective domain of the habitus and the objective domain of the field’ (Butler, 1999:117).
However, many commentators including Butler have found this pairing
problematic and maintained that Bourdieu remains ‘trapped within an objectivist
point of view’ (Jenkins, 1992:91). As we have seen in the Bourdieusian work on journalism the field can easily become the dominant partner in the field/habitus pairing. Indeed Butler argues that the distinction between the habitus and the field is at best tenuous because the habitus is created by an internalisation of the rules of the field. The habitus is in effect, the result of playing the game within the field and in Butler’s view this means, ‘the habitus presupposes the field as the condition of its own possibility’ (Butler, 1999:117). While Bourdieu contends that the habitus/field pairing is characterised by dynamism and fluidity and so is open to change, hence his claim that the habitus is ‘creative and inventive, but within the limits of its structures’ (Bourdieu, 1992:19), his critics see the pairing as rigidly bound together with the structural element of the field firmly in the ascendant.
It is this perceived structural dominance that leads critics to characterise Bourdieu as a conservative, determinist thinker whose model has no space for social change. If as Butler contends, ‘the ideal of adaptation governs the relation between habitus and field, such that the field, often figured as pre‐existing or as a social given, does not alter by virtue of the habitus, but the habitus always and only alters by virtue of the demands put upon it by the ‘objectivity’ of the field’
(Butler, 1999:117), then social structures will almost inevitably seamlessly reproduce themselves. Bourdieu’s failure to account for change has been particularly problematic for feminists. His investigation of the creation of a feminine habitus in Masculine Domination produced an account of gendered socialisation that is arguably too seamless and complete. There seems to be no alternative for the little girl, but to embrace the feminine habitus, which is imposed by her family and education, and this process is conceptualised as invariable, comprehensive and successful. The habitus must then submit to the demands of the field. While feminist theory has often occupied itself with the breakdown of this process and conceptualised the adoption of femininity as an uneasy, unstable fit that must be endlessly re‐enacted and repeated. Bourdieu has been accused of not attending to things that do not fit, or as Jenkins says:
Any substantial deviance from the imperatives of the habitus is so inconceivable that he does not even consider it. His model of practice, despite all of its references to improvisation and fluidity, turns out to be a celebration of (literally) mindless conformity (Jenkins, 1992:96).
However, despite these criticisms some feminist commentators have suggested ways in which the potential of the habitus/field pairing could be harnessed for feminist thought. In her 2000 book Gender and Agency McNay argues convincingly that, while there are undoubtedly problems with Bourdieu’s application of the habitus/field pairing to gender, the theoretical model itself is a useful one. McNay contends that the problem with Masculine Domination is the reverse of that to be found in the work on the journalistic field. Here it is the concept of the field that is left relatively unexplored, ‘the conceptual implications of the idea of the field are not brought to bear sufficiently on the idea of the gendered habitus’ (McNay, 2000:53). This failing is explained by Bourdieu’s concentration on mythic sexual structures in a peasant society. Bourdieu’s
empirical focus is on material gathered during his fieldwork in Kabylia in the late 1950s and early 1960s, by taking as his example a deeply traditional peasant society, in which gender relations appear to be largely unquestioned, Bourdieu is able to illustrate how gender divisions permeate society’s structures in ways that are often hidden, taken for granted and experienced as natural. However, ‘his reliance on the Kabyle material makes him underestimate, the level of crisis we are experiencing in gender relations today’ (Moi, 1991:1033). A concentration on the creation of a gendered habitus to the exclusion of the consideration of the effects of the field, ‘results in an overemphasis on the alignment that the habitus establishes between subjective dispositions and the objective structures of the field with regard to gender identity’ (McNay, 2000:54). There is little
consideration of the effects on the gendered habitus of the movement across fields that are characteristic of modern society. His analysis oversimplifies
gender relations and so becomes monolithic, an example of the kind of structural determinism that Butler and Jenkins accuse him of.
However, McNay suggests that these problems are not inherent to his theoretical model and could be overcome if the concept of the field were
considered in conjunction with the idea of the habitus. Such an analysis leads to a fuller consideration of the ‘generative dynamic between habitus and field and leads to a more nuanced view of political agency in terms of the idea of regulated liberties’ (56). This conception of power relations does not deny agency but is more cautious about the possibilities of subversion through symbolic power seeking always to relate it back to social realities. McNay proposes this
formulation of ‘regulated liberties’ that are ‘durable but not eternal’ as a useful one for considering ‘significant assertions of women’s autonomy in the last
twenty years which rest on an ambivalent relation with conventional notions and images of heterosexuality’ (56). It is the kind of ‘ambivalent’ negotiation that takes place within the field of feminine journalism, which has built a notion of independence and empowerment on a foundation of femininity and
twenty years which rest on an ambivalent relation with conventional notions and images of heterosexuality’ (56). It is the kind of ‘ambivalent’ negotiation that takes place within the field of feminine journalism, which has built a notion of independence and empowerment on a foundation of femininity and