Prior to the Civil War, white religious groups opened schools for black people and abolitionist fundraising attracted black and white teachers to the South to establish secondary schools and colleges (Frazier 1957; Graham 1999; McBride and Little 1981). The antebellum schools that came out of this era were Howard University in Washington, D.C., Fisk University in Nashville, TN, and Atlanta University, Morehouse College, and Spelman College, all of which are located in Atlanta, GA (Graham 1999). After the Civil War there was an upsurge in educational opportunities as black colleges were developing their programs and the black middle-class had access to advanced and professional degrees (McBride and Little 1981). World War I military service disrupted this increase in overall educational attainment because while some black people were obtaining advanced degrees others stopped early and opted instead to join the military (McBride and Little 1981). Also, during the late 1920s there was a decline in educational attainment due to the Great Depression, higher admission standards, and the closing of several black medical programs (McBride and Little 1981). After a period of relatively steady increase in average years of education for black people, these factors contributed to the decline from 18.41 years in 1918-1928 to 16.73 years in 1923-1933 (McBride and Little 1981).
In his study of the black upper-class, Lawrence Otis Graham (1999) identifies three major elite black colleges, respectively: Howard University, Spelman College, and Morehouse College. Howard University was founded by the Freedmen’s Bureau for freed slaves. It was intended to be apolitical and rise to the status of a black Ivy League
institute. Spelman College was the first black female college and Graham (1999) argues that Spelman’s white leadership resulted in greater respect from Atlanta’s wealthy white
residents and politicians, which was demonstrated through their financial contributions. Morehouse College is the only black male college and is currently a part of the Atlanta University system along with Spelman College since its relocation from Augusta, GA. Morehouse College was less reliant on white supporters for affirmation of status than Howard University and Spelman College, which is made evident by the fact that its first black president was selected in 1906, whereas Howard University and Spelman College selected their first black presidents in 1926 and 1954, respectively (Graham 1999). Graham (1999) explains that Fisk University is not considered to be on the same level as Howard University, Spelman College, and Morehouse College socially but it boasts of having more intellectual advancements since it was the first historically black college or university (HBCU) to have a Phi Beta Kappa4 chapter and to achieve full accreditation.
Other elite black universities are Hampton University in Hampton, Virginia, which started as a trade school, resulting in its lesser prestige until more recently when it expanded to include liberal arts and sciences, and Tuskegee University in Tuskegee, Alabama, which was founded by Booker T. Washington and modeled after Hampton University (Graham 1999).
Beginning with the Henondelphisterian Society, which disappeared by 1830 and was replaced by the Athenian and Philomathean Societies, collegiate debate clubs and literary societies were the precursors for black fraternalism since they were the first types of extra curricular activities for black students at black colleges (Kimbrough 2003; Little 2002). Women experienced isolation as a gendered minority in higher education and
4 Founded in 1776 at the College of William and Mary in Virginia, Phi Beta Kappa, a
liberal arts and sciences honor society, was the first Greek-letter organization (Kimbrough 2003)
decided to create their own gender-exclusive organizations, beginning with the Hesperian Society in 1870 (Kimbrough 2003). As the Greek-letter system developed it had an increased impact on the college campus environment, but as with other mainstream institutions black students were excluded from white fraternal organizations and therefore established their own organizations as a challenge to this form of white supremacy and exclusivity (Hine 2003; Kimbrough 2003).
Dr. Henry M. Minton, a founder of one of the first black fraternities, encountered fraternal life in Philadelphia in both collegiate and professional settings, and although he was considered for membership he was ultimately rejected and therefore decided to begin a black fraternity (Kimbrough 2003). In 1904 he met with his colleagues to formally organize the graduate fraternity Sigma Pi Phi that is colloquially known as the Boulé (Jones 2004; Kimbrough 2003). Since five of the founders were physicians and one was a dentist, the Boulé was originally conceived as having an elite black membership. W.E.B. DuBois (1948), a member of the Boulé, and Frazier (1957) criticized it for not having a significant aim for the black community beyond access to elitism. DuBois (1948) proposed that this type of black professional “guiding hundredth” would be the site to challenge the white power structure, but believed they would be too preoccupied with the frivolity inherent to youthfulness and establishing themselves professionally following graduation.
Walter Kimbrough (2003) recognizes three other BGLOs during this foundational era. First, as fraternal development increased in Indiana so did racism against black students at Indiana University in Bloomington, IN, so black male students established the Alpha Kappa Nu Greek Society in 1903. The organization only lasted about fourteen
months (Jennings 2008; Jones 2004; Kimbrough 2003). Next, Pi Gamma Omicron
Fraternity was advertised during the 1905-1906 academic year at Ohio State University in Columbus, OH but the university denied its existence when questioned about it by the black male students who would go on to establish Alpha Phi Alpha Fraternity, Inc. (Kimbrough 2003). Finally, Gamma Phi was founded at Wilberforce University in Wilberforce, OH in 1905 and expanded to include three additional chapters, but disappeared after about thirty years (Kimbrough 2003).
Such colleges as Atlanta University and Fisk University were reluctant to permit Greek life on their campuses because they saw them as distractions, and they were
critical of those organizations for their elitist practices (Frazier 1957; Graham 1999; Little 2002). The religious campus community preferred to develop Christian groups rather than fraternal groups, but their decline in student interest allowed the establishment of black Greek-letter organizations (BGLOs) on black campuses, beginning with Alpha Phi Alpha’s Beta chapter on Howard University’s campus in 1907 as well as the founding of Alpha Kappa Alpha on the same campus in 1908 (Little 2002).
1.2 Introducing the Elite Eight and Other Black Greek-Letter Organizations