PREPARACIÓN DE LAS PROBETAS DE ENSAYO Rueda Rueda

The transition from education into working life is a major change, especially for individuals who lack practical work experience (Graham & McKenzie, 1995). Students leave the more structured, supportive higher education environment to enter the career world (Juuti, 2012) and the difference in the working environments and styles can be challenging (Burland, 2005). During the transition into working life individuals can face financial and time pressures alongside uncertainty (Creech et al., 2008). In order to successfully negotiate the transition an individual must ‘adjust to, cope with, and take advantage of the changing opportunities and constraints characteristic of different stages of life’ (Heckhausen et al., 2010, p. 4). Success during the transition is important for both financial and psychosocial reasons (Kroger, 2005). The following section discusses research on the transition into working life.

Clear career plans and an awareness of actions and behaviour needed to achieve these plans are important for maintaining the perseverance needed to overcome obstacles and adapt to changing conditions (Seibert et al., 2013). The number of opportunities considered and the way in which individuals respond to them are determined by internal (personal) and external (social and environmental) influences (Krumboltz et al., 1976). Greater awareness of one’s attributes and abilities is likely to lead to higher levels of self- confidence when searching for jobs and in turn consideration of a greater number of careers. Additionally, individuals need to be aware of available opportunities, career paths, and how their own abilities and attributes relate to jobs (Schmidt, 1982). Difficulties can arise when students fail to recognise generic and transferable skills or to make connections between their course of study and potential career paths (Greenbank, 2010). It is therefore important that students are aware of the skills developed within their courses and the relevance of

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these to the wider context of careers (Brown, 2003). However, encouraging students to understand the wider relevance of the skills learnt within their courses presents a challenge for academic staff (Mason, Williams, Cranmer, & Guile, 2003).

The careers and opportunities available to an individual are influenced by social and environmental factors such as location (e.g. master’s subjects may not be available in all institutions) and being accepted by gate holders into a desired position (e.g. a supervisor accepting an applicant onto the master’s degree) (Krumboltz et al., 1976). Due to the range of influences upon career transitions, plans do not always run smoothly. Greenbank (2010) conducted interviews with 34 business school undergraduates and found many of the students lacked clear career objectives, and therefore struggled to engage in effective career planning. Those who are motivated to study a master’s degree in order to delay their entry into working life may find career planning particularly difficult. Due to the intensity of master’s degrees, which tend to involve a quick succession of assignments, students often struggle to make time to plan during their degree and as such may find themselves facing the same uncertainty after finishing as they did before starting the degree (Slight, 2012).

The potential for career plans to change is highlighted by Bowman et al’s (2005) study in which only one of the 24 UK full-time master’s graduates was involved in the work they had originally planned to enter at the start of their master’s degree. Bowman et al. used semi-structured interviews to gain an in-depth insight into the experiences of taught

master’s students on a range of vocational and non-vocational subjects. The authors claimed that the participants faced four types of career transition during their master’s degrees:

Confirmatory and Socialising

 The largest group of students were those who reinforced their original career intentions whilst studying the master’s degree. This group mainly consisted of those enrolled upon vocational degrees who tended to focus most of their interests and time on the course and activities related to the course.

 The students learnt the expectations of their career field and were able to confirm their interest in it.

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Confirmatory

 The second largest group, with seven students, were those who confirmed their career path but tended to have a wider range of interests which affected career decisions and had less certain, more short-term career plans.

Contradictory/Evolving

 Five students faced contradictory or evolving transitions, completing the master’s degree despite difficulties.

 This group used the negative experiences of their master’s degree to drive them towards alternative areas and positive outcomes, using their other interests as a guide.

Dislocating

 The final group is perhaps the most concerning: this consisted of four students who faced a dislocated transition where a lack of career management skills meant they remained uncertain of career plans at the end of their master’s degree.

 This group still enjoyed the degree itself but felt typical graduate work did not suit them and had no concrete plans for types of work they were interested in, other than a vague hope for their career to be ‘enjoyable’ (Bowman, Colley, & Hodkinson, 2004, p. 12) .

The categories above highlight the impact a master’s degree may have upon students’ career planning and the importance of life and work experience when making decisions. The

individuals who entered careers similar to those they had intended before starting their master’s degree relied heavily upon their postgraduate experiences to achieve their career plans. However, life and work experiences were also important when attempting to secure employment. Gaining experiences in the work field allowed the participants to develop their areas of interest and explore their career paths further, with some exploring new areas in which they previously had no experience. A lack of employment experience lead to many participants facing uncertain futures (Bowman et al., 2005). Those who entered PhDs found their previous academic experiences to be beneficial, but faced new challenges related to approaching a large-scale research project. Some of the students who entered PhD study appeared to do so because of uncertainty regarding their ability to gain employment in a

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desired field, highlighting that even by this stage of study some students follow this route to gain certainty in the short-term.

Much of the previous research on working adult musicians has focused upon performers or teachers. An example of such research was conducted by Manturzewska (1990).

Manturzewska conducted a longitudinal study of 165 polish musicians to explore the factors needed for successful professional development. Family environment and intrinsic

motivations were important, alongside the roles played by teachers, colleagues and socio- economic support. The longitudinal method provided an insight into the social factors influencing musicians’ career development including socio-economic status, which is absent from many studies discussing transitions (although some specifically observe the impact of socio-economic status on education e.g. Dibben, 2004; Sewell & Shah, 1967). Perhaps socio- economic status is of more importance as music often requires high lesson and instrumental costs which may not be as prevalent in other subjects. However, Manturzewska’s study does not reflect the current reality of what it means to be a working musician due to the

interviews being conducted between 1976 and 1980 (Gee, 2010). Manturzewska focuses solely upon the lives of composers and performers, whereas the current study focuses upon individuals studying theoretical music courses, therefore the two sets of participants are likely to differ in terms of motivations and experiences. Despite this, her study is useful in providing a rare lifespan picture of musicians’ careers.

Musicians’ working conditions are potentially different and disadvantaged compared to workers in other sectors due to:

 The erratic nature of the employment

 Unpredictable and often poor levels of income

 The many hours spent unpaid on personal development

 The need (for some) to secure non-musical work in order to make a living (Missingham, 2006, p. 6).

The Musicians’ Benevolent Fund (2012) found that conservatoire graduates working as professional musicians worried about low fees and lack of work. Due to the general lack of stable employment opportunities for musicians, many are forced to develop a portfolio career in order to make a living (additionally some may choose to do so in order to achieve variety within their working life) (Bologna Working Group, 2009). A musical career is