A path model was designed and a set of hierarchical regressions were conducted. As an initial measure the parental styles (both maternal and paternal), the three demographic variables and the four personality variables were regressed on to happiness (along with self-esteem) and then onto self-esteem itself. Thus, with the happiness score as the dependent variable, first sex and age were entered, followed by parental styles, then personality variables and finally self-esteem. The rationale was that the more stable and earlier “occurring” variables were entered first. Once this regression was completed the pattern was repeated with self-esteem as the dependent variable. Following this extraversion and neuroticism became the dependent variables respectively. Thus this was a theory-driven path analysis which allowed for the testing of the specific hypotheses.
Following a series of simultaneous regressions in each step of the path analysis, only significant variables (five out of twelve) were retained for further analysis. The initial regression was significant (F(5,278) = 40.86, p<.001; Adj R Square = .42) and showed that self-esteem (p = .50, t = 9.01, p<.001) and extraversion (P = .18, t = 3.44, p<.001) as well as maternal authoritativeness (p = .13, t = 2.59, p<.05) were significant predictors of happiness (See Figure 5.1). Thus the first part of hypothesis c) that self esteem would be a predictor of happiness and hypothesis d) were confirmed. The second regression with self-esteem as the dependent variable was also significant (F(4,294) = 36.12, p<.001; Adj R Square = .34). Extraversion (P = .28, t = 5.50, p<.001), neuroticism (p = -.23, t = 6.01, p<.001), maternal authoritativeness (P = .20, t = 3.95, p<.001) as well as sex (p = -.14, t = 2.73, p<.05) were significant predictors o f self-esteem. Thus the second part of hypothesis c) that neuroticism would predict happiness mediating through
Figure 5.1 Path M odel. Predicting happiness (OHI) from self-esteem, personality (EPQ), parental (hoth paternal and maternal) rearing style (PA Q ),
and demographic variables for hoth hoys and girls
(VI
00
.13*
.20* * *
-.14*
M ale coded as "1", fem ale as "2".
Sex Extraversion Neuroticism Happiness Self-esteem Maternal Authoritativeness *p<.05; ***p<.001.
self-esteem was also confirmed. Maternal authoritativeness was also a predictor of extraversion (p = .20, t = 3.69, p<.001) and neuroticism (p = -.23, t = 4.43, p<.001).
Figure 5.1 shows that self-esteem was the strongest direct predictor of happiness, whilst extraversion and maternal authoritativeness were both direct and indirect (mediating though self-esteem) predictors of happiness, and among the six variables of parental styles, maternal authoritativeness was the most influential factor of perceived happiness.
4. Predicting happiness from self-esteem, personality, parental rearing styles (paternal and maternal scales were used separately), and demographic variables
Considering that there were intercorrelations between paternal and maternal scales (r = .52 for permissiveness, r = .58 for authoritarian style, and r = .48 for authoritativeness, p<.001), in order to distinguish the influences of paternal and maternal rearing styles on young people, the three paternal and three maternal variables were used separately in the hierarchical regression. Again, only the significant variables were retained after a series of simultaneous regressions.
Figure 5.2 shows that whilst self-esteem and extraversion remained as significant predictors of happiness, paternal authoritativeness also became a significant direct predictor o f happiness (p = .14, t = 2.57, p<.05). Extraversion, neuroticism, sex, and paternal authoritarian style were significant predictors of self-esteem which was by far the strongest predictor of self-reported happiness.
Figure 5.3 shows that self-esteem and extraversion were the only significant direct predictors of happiness. However there were many more significant predictors of self esteem (sex, maternal permissiveness, maternal authoritativeness, maternal authoritarian
Figure 5.2 Path M odel. Predicting happiness (OHI) from self-esteem, personality (EPQ), paternal rearing style (PA Q ), and demographic variable for both hoys and girls
o \ o .15** 14** -.14* -.15**
M ale coded as "1", fem ale as "2".
Sex Extraversion Neuroticism Self-esteem Happiness Paternal Authoritarian Paternal Authoritativeness *p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001.
Figure 5.3 Path M odel. Predicting happiness (OHI) from self-esteem, personality (EPQ), maternal rearing style (PA Q ), and demographic variable for both boys and girls
ON .
16
*=^ .16** -.15** 9 7 * * * .18** -.19**M ale coded as "1", fem ale as "2".
Sex Extraversion Happiness Self-esteem Neuroticism Maternal Authoritativeness Maternal Authoritarian Maternal Permissiveness **p<.01; ***p<.001.
style, extraversion and neuroticism) suggesting that self-esteem probably is a moderator variable between personality, maternal rearing styles and happiness. Thus hypothesis e) was partly confirmed (because self-esteem was the moderator variable of all three maternal rearing styles but only one paternal rearing style).
At this stage, it was thought that it might be useful to look at the specific influences parental rearing styles may have in young people of different gender groups. The sample then was divided and further analysis was carried out.
5. Correlations between parental rearing styles, personality, self-esteem, happiness and
demographic variables (by gender)
From Table 5.3 it can be seen that maternal authoritativeness seemed to have a bigger impact on boys’ than on girls’ self-esteem (r = .41, p<.001 for boys and r = .23, p<.001 for girls) and happiness (r = .44, p<.001 for boys and r = .21, p<.01 for girls) indicating that maternal authoritativeness may play an important role in fostering their sons’ self-esteem and consequently happiness. Whilst maternal employment appeared to have a stronger association with maternal authoritarian style in female sample (r = -.24, p<.001) than in male sample (r = -.08, ns) suggesting that unemployed mothers tended to exhibit more authoritarian style towards their daughters than towards their sons.
Table 5.3 Correlations between parental rearing style (PAQ), personality (EPQ), self-esteem (RSES), happiness (OHI),
and demographic variable for boys and girls
Boys
Measures M E Ext Neu Psy Lie SE O H I
Permissiveness Father .01 .11 .10 .13 -.10 .08 .14 Mother .10 .09 .06 .22** -.02 .02 .05 Parents .05 .14 .06 .17* -.06 .08 .15 Authoritarian Father -.11 -.16 .20* -.00 ,14 -.3 6 *** - 3 3 ** * Mother -.08 - 22 ** .22** -.05 ,13 -.4 0 *** -.4 0 * ** Parents -.16* -.20* .2 3 ** -.04 ,15 -.4 2 * ** -.3 9 *** Authoritativeness Father -.01 .07 -.16 -.03 -.01 .2 5 *** .3 2 *** Mother .07 .25** - 3 3 *** -.03 -.07 .4 1 *** Parents .07 .19* -.2 3 ** -.02 -.06 .3 5 *** .4 3 *** Girls
Measures M E Ext Neu Psy Lie SE O H I
Permissiveness Father .16* .13 .09 .15* .01 .06 .09 Mother .14* .06 -.06 .21** .11 .05 .03 Parents .17* .09 -.07 .21** .07 .06 .07 Authoritarian Father -.12 -.19* .07 .05 .08 - 2 0 ** _ 2 9 ** * Mother . 2 4 * * * -.11 .19** -.05 -.07 -.17* -.1 9 ** Parents -.22** -.18** .15* -.00 .01 -.2 3 *** _ 2 9 ** * A uthoritativeness Father .10 .19* -.09 -.13 -.08 .2 5 *** .2 8 *** Mother .13 .17* -.17* -.10 .12 .2 3 *** .21 ** Parents .14* .22** -.15* -.16* -.00 .2 8 *** .2 8 ***
Note; *p<.05; **p<.01; ***p<.001. ME = maternal employment.
Eysenck Personality Questionnaire: Ext = extraversion; Neu = neuroticism; Psy = psychoticism; Lie = lie scale. RSES = Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale.
6. Predicting happiness from self-esteem, personality, parental rearing styles, and