Presentación de los actores

Jonassen (2011) claimed that the central focus of learning and instruction should be happening during the process of solving a problem. His arguments are that, while solving problems, knowledge is constructed, is more meaningful, more integrated, better retained and more transferable. Problem-solving is a process and a skill that a person develops over time, to be used when needing to solve a problem. Most educators would agree that the engineers’ main task is to solve problems. However, there is disagreement as to how engineers are educated to be good problem-solvers (Northwood et al., 2003).

2.3.1.1 The Importance of Problem-Solving Skills

Learning to take a problem-solving approach has become important in engineering. Engineers have needed to develop mindsets that could be described as “powerful analytical tools” in order to elicit the most possible solutions to a variety of problems (El-Zein et al., 2016). The world’s economy has become increasingly interlinked and the importance of collaboration involving international teams has increased concurrently. Additionally, growing complexities of different scenarios demand that engineers acquire new knowledge simultaneously to solve engineering problems (Rabl et al., 2012). Jonassen et al. (2006) found that engineers in industry solve problems that:

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 Combine well-structured problems and complex ill-structured problems.  Measure success by non-engineering standards.

 Consider non-engineering limitation.

 Require extensive collaboration with other engineers and non-engineers.  Always encounter unanticipated problems.

 Primarily rely on experiential knowledge.

The Faculty of Engineering and Surveying in University of Southern Queensland is an example of an HE Institute that recognises the importance of problem-solving skills. It has grounded the faculty philosophy that engineers should be predominantly problem-solvers, able to utilise the latest technology to solve multi-disciplinary problems throughout their professional lives (Gibbings et al., 2007).

2.3.1.2 Definition of Problem-Solving Skills

The literature suggested the adoption of a broader paradigm of definitions for problem and problem-solving, as well as for decision-making (Downey, 2005; El-Zein et al., 2008). The US National Academy of Engineering, NAE (2004) described problem-solving skills as the ability to frame problems, putting them in a socio-technical and operational context. Problem-solving involves a cognitive role in processing information where people need to think with the prior knowledge that they have (Krishnan et al., 2009). The US National Academy of Engineering, NAE (2011) conducted an online research of 3,600 people to study the public perception towards engineering. One of the messages that emerged from the research was that “engineers are creative problem-solvers”. Correspondingly, El-Zein et al. (2016) described problem-solving as a defining feature of engineering identity. The ability to solve problems is built into the engineering curricula in HE as a learning outcome and a graduate attribute (p. 692).

2.3.1.3 Problem-Solving Skills Development and Its Challenges

Real engineering problems in industry are substantively different from the problems that engineering students are exposed to in the classroom (Jonassen et al., 2006). Jonassen (2011) argued that engineering students are taught mostly to solve only textbook problems; therefore, learning to solve classroom problems does not necessarily develop students’ problem-solving skills. The author claimed that students should learn to solve problems by: reconciling multiple conflicting constraints and criteria; being aware of multiple sub-problems; communicating and negotiating with both engineers and non-engineers; and anticipating problems. Woods et al. (2000) suggested three activities that students can use to develop problem-solving skills more efficiently. These are to: use standard research-based problem- solving strategies across several courses in an instructional programme, consider providing

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some in-depth problems to be solved and to help students integrate the problem statement, the identification of required technical knowledge, and possible problem solutions.

Teaching the problem-solving process in the classroom can be achieved in a number of ways. Thinking Aloud in Pairs Problem-Solving (TAPPS), where problem-solving processes are developed through interaction between the problem-solver and a listener, is particularly useful (Biggs, 1999b). Instructional design and learning design theories also can be considered as another method in problem-solving development as the instructional methods and models are used in a given situation or context (Gunasekara, 2004). Another well-recognised method for developing problem-solving skills is the use of PBL exercises or activities (Nair et al., 2009). Decision-making is usually incorporated with problem-solving (El-Zein et al., 2008). In addition, questioning and answering deep-reasoning questions also help to develop problem- solving skills by articulating causal process as well as goals, plans, actions, and logical justification (Jonassen, 2011).

While all the activities described above are aimed at helping students develop problem-solving skills, Downey (2005) argued that Engineering Education should go beyond problem-solving into problem definition and solving, which the author called as PDS. Downey claimed PDS could benefit engineering students to engage with the process of developing these skills. Indeed a shift to PDS, if it benefits students acquiring these skills, benefits all, and the public good is served (El-Zein et al., 2016). According to Downey (2005), PDS requires collaboration with the problem’s stakeholders, includes non-technical aspects of the problem and promotes leadership practice.

The challenges of developing problem-solving skills have been discussed in the literature. Several authors claimed that HE hinders future engineers from moving outside of the technical box, which decreases their ability to solve ill-structured problems (Jonassen et al., 2006). Problem-solving frequently relates to mathematical abstraction and reductionism while overlooking social and political complexity (El-Zein et al., 2016). Similarly, Giddens (2009) described technologies as always being embedded in political, economic and social frameworks, which are likely to govern both how they develop and the resulting consequences (p. 187). If Engineering Education programmes want to resolve the above challenges, they must grasp the nature of problem-solving in the workplace.