presión del embrague

4.5.1. Tests of difference

A one-way, between-group multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVAs) performed on gender differences across paranormal factors (haunting, ET, superstition, PK, religious belief, astrology, ESP and witchcraft) produced the following observable effects:

A significant difference was observed for gender overall, F(8, 1206) = 18.479, p < .001; Wilks’ Lambda =.891; ηp2 = 1.09. Females (M = 3.63, SD = 0.98) scored higher on the paranormal belief scale than males (M = 3.24, SD = 1.07). This revealed significant difference on each of the dependent variables (see Table 9).

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Females scored higher on the following subscales, haunting (M = 4.13, SD = 1.46 vs. M = 3.41, SD = 1.51), superstition (M = 4.12, SD = 1.59 vs. M = 3.33, SD = 1.42), PK (M = 2.68, SD = 1.25 vs. M = 2.47, SD = 1.34), religious belief (M = 4.40, SD = 1.45 vs. M = 3.89, SD = 1.60), astrology (M = 3.21, SD = 1.30 vs. M = 2.81, SD = 1.35), ESP (M = 4.37, SD = 1.25 vs. M = 3.96, SD = 1.36), and witchcraft (M = 2.98, SD = 1.35 vs. M = 2.62, SD = 1.42). Males scored higher on ET belief than females (M = 3.09, SD = 1.45 vs.

M = 2.87, SD = 1.31).

Table 9: Gender differences on paranormal belief subscales

(Key: Haunt = Hauntings, ET = Extra-Terrestrials, Super = Superstition, PK = Psychokinesis, RB = Religious Beliefs, Astro = Astrology, ESP = Extra-Sensory Perception and Witch = Witchcraft).

Cohen (1988) suggested that partial eta-squared (ηp2) interpretation employs the following rule of thumb: values between .01 and .06 reflect a small effect size; values within the .06 to .13 specify a medium effect size and a value of .14 or higher indicates a large effect.

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4.5.2. Relationship between new scale, existing scales, anomalistic beliefs and paranormal experience

Prior to analysis, Cronbach’s alpha assessed scale reliability. All measures possess good to excellent internal reliability. Cronbach’s alpha (α) assessed the internal reliability of established paranormal belief measures (RPBS and ASGS) and anomalous belief scales (Conspiracies and Urban Legends). All measures demonstrated good (approximately .8 to .9) to excellent (.9 and above) internal reliability (see Table 10).

Table 10: Descriptive of experience, paranormal belief measures and anomalous beliefs

(Key: Experience = Level of experience, MMUpbs = Manchester Metropolitan University Paranormal Belief Scale, RPBS = Revised Paranormal Belief Scale, NAP = New Age Philosophy, TPB = Traditional Paranormal Beliefs, ASGS = Australian Sheep-Goat Scale, Urban Legends = Anomalous Beliefs and Conspiracies = Belief in Conspiracy).

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Table 11: Inter-correlations experience, established paranormal belief measures and anomalous beliefs

**correlation significant at p < .01 (one-tailed).

(Key: Experience = Paranormal Experience, MMUpbs = Manchester Metropolitan University Paranormal Belief Scale (MMUpbs), RPBS = Revised Paranormal Belief Scale, NAP = New Age Philosophy, TPB = Traditional Paranormal Belief, ASGS = Australian Sheep-Goat Scale, Urban Legends = Anomalous Beliefs and, Conspiracies = Belief in Conspiracy).

Pearson’s Product Moment correlations explored relationships between variables. Number of experiences correlated with level of paranormal belief (MMUpbs, RPBS and ASGS) and endorsement of anomalous beliefs (conspiracies and urban legends). Additionally, there was a positive correlation between the anomalous belief measures conspiracies and urban legends. MMUpbs correlated significantly with all established measures of paranormal belief: RPBS (NAP and TPB) and ASGS (see Table 11).

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Table 12: Correlations between the eight facets of the MMUpbs and established paranormal belief measures

**correlation significant at p < .01 (one-tailed).

(Key: Haunt = Hauntings, ET = Extra-Terrestrials, Super = Superstition, PK = Psychokinesis, RB = Religious Beliefs, Astro = Astrology, ESP = Extra-Sensory Perception and Witch = Witchcraft).

Table 13: Correlations between the MMUpbs and anomalous belief measures

**correlation significant at p < .01 (one-tailed).

(Key: Haunt = Hauntings, ET = Extra-Terrestrials, Super = Superstition, PK = Psychokinesis, RB = Religious Beliefs, Astro = Astrology, ESP = Extra-Sensory Perception and Witch = Witchcraft).

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Similarly, MMUpbs subscales correlated with anomalous beliefs (conspiracies and urban legends) (see Table 13).

4.5.3. Scale relationships

All measures possessed moderate to excellent internally reliability: MMUpbs (new paranormal measure), RPBS, ASGS, and anomalous belief (urban legends and conspiracist beliefs). Significant positive correlations exist between the MMUpbs, RPBS, and ASGS; and between the subscales of the MMUpbs, RPBS, and ASGS. This revealed moderate positive correlations between MMUpbs Paranormal subscales and the two Rasch scaled factors of the RPBS. Anomalous beliefs moderately positively correlated with the measures of paranormal belief. The MMUpbs demonstrated excellent concurrent validity.

4.5.4. Preliminary analysis of factor structure

All items remained following PCA (Principal Components Analysis). Table 14 shows the infit and outfit statistics for the 47-items. The rotation method used orthogonal (varimax). Entry items 2 and 21 show suitable variance and whilst they fell outside the outfit recommended statistic or (+ or – 2) were within tolerance for a suitable infit condition (item 2 = 2.69 and item 21 = 2.25 respectively).

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Table 14. Rasch scale development: fit/misfit order for 47-item solution

The initial exploratory factor analysis (EFA) revealed a 47-item (nine factor solution) thus satisfying the required infit and outfit model. These items were assessed for goodness of fit during subsequent confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). CFA reduced the original 64-items to 47. Those deemed to be outside the range for and acceptable fit (+2 and -2) were removed from the final version of items.

(see Table 15 below for the original items that informed the current scale/measure)

Following the Rasch scale procedure, an evaluation of the infit and outfit statistics performed on the original 124-item measure. Items deemed to be outside the range for and

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acceptable fit (+2 and -2) were removed from the final version of items. The remaining item clusters are grouped into factors that they represent (e.g., life after death = 26-items).

Table 15. Preliminary analysis of factor structure

126 4.6. Phase I Discussion

4.6.1. General Discussion

The paranormal belief composite measure comprised the following scales; RPBS, ASGS, PSI, and MMUpbs (MMU Paranormal Belief Scale). Following factor analysis, a nine- factor solution emerged. The factors comprised haunting, other life, superstition, religious belief, alien visitation, ESP, PK, astrology, and witchcraft. Each of the factors demonstrated good internal reliability, and were examined using exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and they showed that item clusters were conceptually coherent; all factors possessed good face validity where items were related to an assigned factor (e.g., witchcraft). These findings support the work of Chequers et al. (1997), where a core set of elements appears to explain paranormal belief. Thus, the super scale produced eight usable factors that demonstrated moderate to high degrees of inter-correlation forming a composite measure. Belief in the existence of life on other planets, demonstrated only weak associations.

Phase (I) suggests that a much broader measure of paranormal belief is possible and new/additional items were included. The new MMUpbs measure developed in line with existing belief clusters (RPBS and ASGS) would have the advantage of assessing under- researched related beliefs (e.g., ghosts/haunting, alien visitation and belief in the existence of extra-terrestrials) alongside the more traditional paranormal beliefs.

Extending the research of Dagnall et al. (2010) phase (I) of this doctoral thesis generated a revision of the original 64 item paranormal belief measure (MMUpbs), which allowed development of a more comprehensive set of belief items. As outlined by Dagnall et al. (2010) further refinement of existing items/measures should produce a more global measure whilst allowing the smaller individual core facets of belief in the paranormal (e.g., belief in haunting) should be more succinct, concise and user-friendly. The final general discussion (chapter 8, p.195) of this doctoral thesis outlines a more inclusive discussion.