According to the Save the Children (2010), the key needs of CHHs are:
Interventions to reduce child carer‟s expenses for medication and other essentials to support carers to continue or return to school.
Education of Principals (School heads) and teachers about carer‟s financial and scheduling constraints and enforced legislation to make school more accessible
Education, information, training and support for child carers to care for older and sick family members through home-based care programmes
Psychosocial support for carers in the form of peer support groups for child carers. In India, a number of African studies were reviewed indicating interventions which have addressed the plight of OVC in Africa. Like in many developing countries such as Zimbabwe, OVC in India have not yet received adequate attention that they deserve especially as far as poverty reduction is concerned (Kumar and Schofield, 2008). A phenomenon known as „de facto orphans‟, similar to the OVC situation in Zimbabwe does exist in India whereby some children drop out of school to take over parental roles when their parents fall ill (Kumar and Schofield, 2008). The vulnerability of children is rather a complex issue where HIV/AIDS is implicated as a main causal factor until such a time when an AIDS free-generation is in place.
77
Non-governmental organisations have played a vital role in the prevention, advocacy and care but there is need for the provision of rehabilitation services for OVC. India runs the Solidarity and Action Against the HIV Infection in India (SAATHII) which provides care and homes for OVC. In the homes, the OVC are provided with medical care, nutrition and psychosocial support (SAATHII in Kumar and Schofield, 2008). To further alleviate the plight of OVC especially in CHHs, SAATHII created a network of 10 NGOs through which affected children are reintegrated into schools, families and communities. Most governments and NGOs in developing countries are concerned more about getting involved in psychosocial support, socio-economic assistance and human rights protection for the parentless child.
Governments and civil societies in developing countries are challenged with a burden to mobilise resources in providing education and other basic needs to OVC. Literature seems to indicate that most developing countries facing the HIV/AIDS scourge tend to emphasise community care rather than institutional care. They find ways to strengthen coping capacities of communities by involving the children in activities that benefit them most. They try to build broad collaboration among key stakeholders and integrate more with HIV/AIDS prevention programmes, care and support services. The latter involves life-skills programmes, more support programmes for OVC, community-based approaches for OVC in CHHs and more school initiatives. Governments may learn from the experiences of one another so that appropriate laws and policies are in place for children in distress (Kumar and Schofield, 2008).
On the other hand, the Zimbabweans National HIV and AIDS Strategic Plan (2005-2010) aims to accelerate progress towards equality, equity and empowerment through education for girls, orphans and other vulnerable children. UNICEF (2009) also writes about promoting quality education for OVC for eastern and southern Africa, touching on case examples from Kenya, Rwanda, Swaziland, Uganda and Tanzania. The cases were compared touching on challenges and obstacles of cognition. The goals for each country were specified as a chance to accelerate momentum towards the goal of getting all children in schools of acceptance quality.
Within each country`s report, it was noted that rigorous monitoring and evaluation mechanisms should be done to ensure that any gaps are noted. These case studies do shade light on the
78
consequences of HIV/AIDS for teaching and learning in schools due to the large numbers of teachers who are infected and sometimes fall ill (UNICEF,2009). The above authority contends that education is critical to the future of all children especially the OVC. It gives hope for life and work and it remains a very strong protector against HIV to which most children are susceptible. A relevant curriculum is therefore necessary in any African state including Zimbabwe (Wright in UNICEF, 2009).
It is therefore vital to address the educational rights and needs of OVC in sub-Saharan Africa today. On a positive note, provision of basic education has shown remarkable improvements since the Dakar, Senegal conference on EFA in year 2000. To this effect, about 14 countries in sub-Saharan Africa have abolished school fees. Zimbabwean schools still charge fees though the fee structures are controlled by GoZ to an extent. The UNAIDS Report (2006) on the Global AIDS Pandemic reiterates the fact that in Zimbabwe, children who have lost their mothers are less likely to complete primary school education than those who have lost their fathers. The pandemic continues to exacerbate vulnerabilities and contributes greatly to instability of households and communities including CHHs. Instability is likely to cause obstacles in the learning of OVC especially those residing in CHHs.
A UNICEF (2009) study claims that the number of OVC is growing. In concurrence, the World Health Organisation (WHO) and UNICEF (2009) estimates that a total of 1, 629, 547 people in Africa may die of AIDS, resulting in many children also remaining as OVC. In an effort to highlight current innovations on the issue of OVC, a number of case studies were held by UNICEF in eastern and southern Africa covering Kenya, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda and Zambia. The case reports mainly focused on the preparation for better learning and livelihoods for OVC, taking a multi-sectoral approach in all efforts to assist the OVC. The case reports were centered on some intervention approaches that were meant to allow children access to quality education. Provision of basic education was an effort to address educational rights and needs of OVC. UNICEF claims that the provision of basic education has shown great improvement ever-since the 164 governments met and agreed on EFA in Dakar.
79
In Kenya a programme known as Free Education (FE) policy enabled children access to education. In Rwanda, a Community Child Monitors Programme is assisting in areas of psychosocial and community support to CHHs, whilst the Children`s Learning and Development Programme allows OVC to benefit from vocational education.
In Swaziland the Neighbouring Care Points (NCP) programme helps on community based care of the OVC. NCP is geared towards promoting OVC‟s access to education. In the same state, the All Children Safe in School Programme allows bursary schemes that pay school fees for the OVC. In Uganda, the Kitgum Concerned Women`s Association (KICWA) programme enables children to return to the community and school after education. In addition, Uganda also runs an intervention programme known as Opportunities for Reducing Adolescent and Child Labour through Education (ORACLE) programme that supports access to education of conflict-affected vulnerable children (UNICEF, 2009).
The Most Vulnerable Child programme in Tanzania intervenes in community identification and assistance for the most vulnerable children. The Complementary Basic Education in Tanzania (COBET) programme is a complementary basic education programme that provides a condensed curriculum to OVC.
In Zambia, UNICEF (2009) presents the Zambia Open Community Schools (ZOCS) programme where community schools allow low cost education to OVC. Zambia also runs the Interactive Radio (IR) programme which enables interactive radio instruction or learning to OVC by community facilitators. Lastly, Zambia also runs the Better Education and Life Opportunities through Networking and Organizational Growth (BELONG) programme which runs a school feeding programme and enhances education of OVC. The above interventions are evident in both formal and non-formal education settings where the governments, communities and volunteers all work together to assist in quality education for the learning and social protection of OVC.
More and more projects are being initiated for the support and care of OVC in many nations. The HELP (Hope, Educate, Love and Protect, 2011) is also a Malawian non-profit-making
80
organization dedicated to sustainable primary education in impoverished African Regions. Help to orphans comes in the form of life-skills education, empowerment programmes, provision of teachers and etc.
Though not mentioned in the UNICEF (2009) report, Zimbabwe runs the Basic Education Assistance Module (BEAM) and NATF meant to support the education of the underprivileged and OVC. The National AIDS Council Report (2011) however, reported that the BEAM fund seems to be overwhelmed by the high demand from the populace it is meant to serve. This study aims to assist all child advocates, the GoZ and non-governmental stakeholders in the area of learning and cognition of OVC especially the double orphans running and residing in CHHs.
Literature has established that some extensive intervention practices are being tried in a number of nations worldwide where the CHHs are quite prevalent (Coombe, 2002). Such good practices are in the form of life skills programmes, support programmes, community based approaches and school initiatives. The Horizons programme for instance, included Zimbabwe, Uganda, Malawi, Kenya, Rwanda, South Africa and Zambia (Schenk, Michael, Sapiano, Brown, and Weiss, 2010).The studies under the Horizon programme were diagnostic in nature and explored circumstances of families and communities affected by HIV and evaluations of pioneering intervention strategies. The interventions included succession planning for families, training and support for youths as care-givers, youth mentorship for CHH and support for volunteer care givers.
Save the Children (2010) identifies ways in which Life Skills programmes can permit better learning livelihoods in CHHs. Such Life Skills may equip the OVC with information on HIV/ AIDS and sexually transmitted illnesses in order to allow the children to join hands with stakeholders in carving an AIDS-free generation. Yankah and Aggleton (2009), in sub- Saharan Africa, Latin America, Asia and the Pacific, observed that learners who participated in Life Skills programmes reported an increase in knowledge and improved attitudes towards HIV /AIDS thus leading to positive behavior change.
81
In his PhD thesis, Germann (2005) explored the quality of life and copying strategies of OVC living in Bulawayo city, Zimbabwe. He cites distressing consequences of the HIV/AIDS pandemic and of the increasing numbers of OVC in CHHs. He suggested the need for a change in perspective as far as quality of life is concerned. He reiterates the fact that community-child care activities, non-governmental organisations and statutory support, child care and protection policies are vital if ever the dreams of an orphaned child are to be realized. Germann suggests that sufficient care and support capacity may enable CHHs to function fully. Governments are therefore urged to recognize that an adequately supported CHH is an acceptable alternative care arrangement for children in communities with high adult AIDS mortality.
On behalf of USAID-Nigeria‟s community-based initiatives, Oku and Nsa Cobham (July, 2010) have documented a response to the OVC challenge that involves multiple stakeholders including government ministry‟s departments, civil society organisations, the private sector and development partners. Deters (2008) also analyses Ghana‟s Early Childhood Development (ECD) initiative response to the rising OVC situation citing an official shift towards deinstitutionalization and towards developing community-based approaches. Like Nigeria, Ghana involves NGOs, faith-based organisations and community-based organisations where the government of Ghana supports heavily the alternatives valuing an early investment in its children, thus securing a healthy future for its nation.
HIV/AIDS affects the learner‟s access and quality of learning, particularly for OVC. The notion of a community school is one flexible school initiative that is attempting to meet the needs of children in AIDS-affected areas. It is popular in Mali, Malawi and Uganda. The local communities or churches run schools and do not charge school fees. The children wear no uniforms. The school provides education materials and use local leaders as teachers, often on a voluntary basis.
They also partner with the Ministry of Education for financial and administrative support (Hepburn, 2001). In support of Hepburn‟s notion, Kelly (2000) adds on to suggest that education in the world of AIDS must be different from education in an AIDS-free world. The content, process and methodology have to be examined and altered before being used. In other words, the
82
two are advocating for a situation where a responsive education system should be sensitive enough and revise the curriculum‟s role and content then explore the cost effective community based initiatives.
Many more intervention programmes are in place mostly in developed countries. From the review of literature, some African countries are being initiated into some of the programmes. However, there is need to also focus more closely on the need to place a watchful eye on the plight of OVC particularly those residing as siblings in CHHs. Nations are making efforts to run education programmes, but what goes on in the human psyche in as far as cognition and actual learning are concerned, needs to be unveiled through rigorous research activities, hence the need for this phenomenological case study.
2.10 CHAPTER SUMMARY
Being one of the nations that ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child, Zimbabwe needs to be assisted to enable better learning of every child, no matter what status. The research results will enlighten stakeholders on the effects of double orphanhood on the learning and cognition of OVC in CHHs, where a phenomenological descriptive case study, will allow the affected children to air out their life experiences in learning and cognition.
Aided by a comprehensive, multi-dimensional theoretical framework, the review of literature has tried to remind researchers that the issues concerning the learning and cognition of OVC in CHHs is really a topical issue. The review was done in areas of social construction of the concepts of orphanhood and CHHs; the concepts of learning and orphanhood; related studies on orphanhood, cognition and learning; developmental experiences encountered by OVC in CHHs; efforts to prepare OVC for better learning and livelihoods in CHHs; and policy issues related to OVC and HIV/AIDS. In brief, the chapter has tried to review literature related to the study problem.
83