PRINCIPALES ASPECTOS DEL RÉGIMEN ELECTORAL DE CHILE

Andrew Dobson’s theory on ecological citizenship challenges the idea of democratic participation being confined only to the public sphere, and introduces the notion of the private sphere as being an arena where ecological citizens exercise their democratic rights. According to Dobson (2004), “For ecological citizenship, this separation of public and private cannot hold. For one thing, the household is the site of much ecological citizen activity, and for another, it may even be that the virtues of ecological citizenship are learned there. In general,

81

indeed, the ecological citizen operates at many different levels of society” (p. 10). Dobson argues that compassion and a sense of justice and obligation to the world and future generations is what makes the ecological citizen: “the source of the ecological citizen’s obligations does not lie in reciprocity of mutual advantage, but in a non-reciprocal sense of justice, or of compassion…Ecological citizens can expect nothing in return from future generations and other species for discharging their responsibilities towards them…Ecological citizenship involves a different type of obligation: one owed to strangers, who may be distant in time as well as space” (2004, p. 6).

This research will adopt the term “environmental citizenship” as opposed to “ecological citizenship” to avoid confusion with the research topic that uses also the term “environmental” when referring to the protection of nature and Earth in relation to human wellbeing and development, such as the use of “environmental decision-making” and “environmental sustainability”. Dobson also began to use the terms interchangeably later on, describing “environmental citizenship” as a dynamic concept with various meanings (Dobson 2010). In this thesis, the author will use the updated definition provided by Dobson (2010) who states, “Though definitions vary, ‘environmental citizenship’ can be thought of as pro-environmental behaviour, in public and in private, driven by a belief in fairness of the distribution of environmental goods, in participation, and in the co-creation of sustainability policy” (p. 1).

82

Dobson also elaborates on the characteristics of environmental citizenship, which the author believes could be universally applicable. According to Dobson (2010, p. 7), the environmental citizen:

1. Believes that environmental sustainability is a common good;

2. Is moved by other-regarding motivations as well as self-interested ones (the environmental citizen says “I will even if you won’t”);

3. Believes that ethical and moral knowledge is as important as techno- scientific knowledge;

4. Believes that other people’s environmental rights engender environmental responsibilities (“less about the rights and duties of citizens vis-à-vis the government, and more about the rights and duties of citizens vis-à-vis each other”);

5. Believes that these responsibilities are due not only to one’s neighbours or fellow nationals but also to distant strangers (in space and in time); and 6. Is aware that private environment-related actions can have public

environment-related impacts (practices that take place in the private arena such as recycling can be regarded as “citizenly”)32_.

32 _{More details on this interpretation and understanding of “environmental citizenship” can be referred to}

through the following report by Dobson (2010): <http://www.sd-

research.org.uk/sites/default/files/publications/SDRN%20Environmental%20Citizenship%20and%20Pro- Environmental%20Full%20Report_0.pdf> [Accessed 16 June 2013].

83

Dobson’s theory on environmental citizenship will thus be referred to in this research as a guideline for the kind of characteristics that the Malaysian public, especially its citizens, should adopt in order to do their part in improving environmental governance because as the author mentioned above under the Governance theory, all actors need to play an active role as well. The responsibility of maintaining environmental sustainability (in order to achieve sustainable development) through fostering good environmental governance, especially with regard to advancing environmental access rights should not only rest with the Government, but indeed be shared by all, including the citizens.

2.8 CHAPTER SUMMARY

This chapter has provided a detailed description of the methodologies that were employed in this research. The author has shared and explained the qualitative, exploratory research design, and the single-case embedded case study approach that was adopted as well as the different types of data collection that were used within the time limit of each step in the author’s research strategy staircase. The author also listed down the criteria that were used for selecting the case study and the various types of limitations that were encountered in the three phases of data collection. Although the limitations of this research had posed some obstacles for the author, it nevertheless served to impart lessons in understanding how to obtain willing participants in Malaysia, how to adapt to aspects of the communication culture in certain organisations and groups of

84

people, and how to conduct more engaging interviews with participants to gain valuable answers. Finally, the theoretical framework of this research was explained in this chapter as well, and the author has made clear that the research does not intend to prove or dispel any theories, but will refer to them instead as a guidance towards understanding the research topic and inspiring the conceptual, policy-based framework that the author will produce as an outcome of the research.

85