Hostile prejudice does not seem to be a simple product of intergroup similarity or difference. For example, even though people who are under 30 and over 70 years of age are viewed by many as being two quite separate groups, there is not a corresponding level of hostility between those groups. That is not to say that the segregated nature of age-based relationships is unproblematic. Age segregation and age stereotypes have serious implications for equality of opportunity and treatment (Abrams 2006b; Abrams, Eller & Bryant, in press; ACE, 2005).
Prejudice also has distinctive components. More than two thirds of the population describe themselves as non-prejudiced, but only two fifths are concerned whether or not they appear to be prejudiced. The extent to which people feel they must regulate their expression of prejudice depends on which groups are involved. People feel less constrained in admitting to prejudice against gay men, lesbians, women and Muslims than they do against other groups. Different groups also feel differently towards specific other groups. For example, people of different religious faiths differ in their attitudes towards gay and lesbian people.
‘Hostile’ and ‘Benevolent’ Forms of Prejudice
To characterise the findings simply, the 6 groups fall broadly into two categories. People with disabilities, people over 70 and (to a lesser extent) women typically are viewed with a patronising or benevolent eye. People who are Muslim, Black or gay or lesbian, are viewed with a more hostile eye. Both types of view can have important consequences.Hostile prejudice
Groups that are viewed with more hostile prejudice are likely to be treated as unwanted competitors. They may be viewed with suspicion or distrust. Because they evoke emotions such as anger and fear it is these groups that seem likely to be victims of physical attacks and overt expressions of prejudice such as racist or homophobic language. In the context of the ‘war against terror’ it is perhaps not surprising that people say Muslims are the group most likely to evoke fear and anger.
There is probably a deeper root of hostile prejudices. After all, asylum seekers are unlikely to be a major material threat to the UK but they are viewed negatively. Likewise, there is little basis for thinking that gay men and lesbians pose a significant material threat to the economy. However, these groups do embrace a lifestyle, and sometimes a culture, that is manifestly not the same as the majority. They also form distinct political communities that are more tangible and possibly more unified, than women, older people and disabled people. It seems that negative attitudes, an unwillingness to enter into close relationships and a lack of support for equal opportunities are some of the ways such hostile prejudice is expressed.
‘Benevolent’ prejudice
Benevolent forms of prejudice are just as consequential as hostile forms because they elicit the disadvantaged group’s compliance or at least acquiescence in accepting their lower status. Groups that are viewed with benevolent prejudices are likely to be ignored or passed over for promotion and other opportunities for advancement because of the presumption that they are either incapable or not suitably motivated.
Previous research suggests that benevolent attitudes towards such groups tends to be conditional on their accepting the status quo – as not demanding equal status to more powerful groups in society. When members of these groups behave in ways that challenge patronising assumptions they may be targeted for criticism or blame. For example, benevolent sexist attitudes towards women are associated with higher levels of blame for victims of date-rape (Abrams, Viki, Masser & Bohner, 2003). They may also find themselves excluded from decision making and participation in things that affect their own lives, as well as access to economic resources (e.g. in areas such as pensions, insurance, health).
These forms of discrimination are not based on personal hostility but reflect institutionalised assumptions that are inappropriately generalised to individuals. This is reflected in the finding that very few people said they felt at all negatively towards women or older people but that sexism and ageism are the forms of prejudice that is likely to be experienced by the largest number of people.
Positive prejudice with negative effects
Concretely, the distinction between benevolent and hostile prejudices is illustrated by people’s decisions about charitable
donations. Just as respondents were keener to promote equality of employment opportunity for women, older people and disabled people, they were very much more willing to propose a charitable donation to these groups than they were for black people, Muslims and gay and lesbian people. The implications of these differences in people’s behavioural inclinations to support different groups are quite important. People who have a very positive attitude about provision of care, support and opportunity in principle could hardly be described as prejudiced. Yet if such support is applied highly selectively to particular groups and not to others the net effect is to perpetuate disadvantages for the latter groups. Obviously there are both personal and political reasons for deciding how resources should be allocated to different groups, but it is important to recognise that positive prejudices to support particular groups can have, often unintended, consequences for other groups. Therefore, members of a group in society may be disadvantaged or discriminated against because of prejudice against it and/or because of prejudice in favour of other groups. Understanding the pattern of prejudice using the approaches adopted in the current research helps to illuminate how and why this can happen.