El principio de igualdad

What is it?

Focused instruction represents the part of the lesson during which the instructor assumes all or most of the responsibility for completing the task by modelling or demonstrating how to do it (Pearson & Gallagher, 1983). Modelling is an instructional technique in which an expert or skilled other demonstrates to a novice how to use a skill or strategy, often by thinking-aloud the steps and mental processes involved in a process (Grabe & Stoller, 2013; O’Malley & Chamot, 1990; Regan & Berkeley, 2012; Rupley, Blair, & Nichols, 2009; Wood, Bruner, & Ross, 1976). Typically, components of modelling strategic behaviours include providing declarative (i.e., what), procedural (i.e., how), and conditional (i.e., when and why) knowledge of the skill or strategy (e.g., Paris, Lipson, & Wixson, 1983). Similar to the first whole of the interactive instructional approach, instructors clearly indicate the purpose of learning during focused instruction so that learners understand what to focus on and what the connections are between what they are doing and why, how, and when to do it (Fisher & Frey, 2014). Focused instruction is very teacher-centred.

How do we use it?

Focused instruction can occur at any part of the lesson, and could take up to 15 minutes (Fisher & Frey, 2014). The primary instructional technique for focused instruction is modelling or demonstrating the skills and strategies. The degree of explicitness and the choice of skills and strategies are based on learners’ readiness, or actual developmental levels, and zones of proximal development. As instructors, we do not want to model skills and processes for which learners

already possess competence. We want to demonstrate how to use the skills and strategies that are within reach of our learners, but that they cannot yet do independently.

Aspects to include in Focused Instruction (Fisher & Frey, 2014):

 State the purpose of the skill/strategy.

 Provide declarative knowledge (i.e., define it, say what it is) about the skill/strategy.

 Provide procedural knowledge about the skill/strategy (e.g., state how to use it, the steps involved).

 Provide conditional knowledge about the skill/strategy (i.e., state when and why it is used).

 Use a think-aloud to model skilled thinking.  Provide models or exemplars of sample tasks.

Key Features of Focused Instruction (Fisher & Frey, 2014)

1. Establishing the purpose of instruction. This is more than posting and reading through a daily agenda. Instructors need to communicate clearly the reason for doing the activities on the agenda. This helps learners know what to pay attention to and reflect on.

2. Modelling/Demonstrating. Modelling is used to show how use cognitive processes (e.g., how to read); demonstration is used to show physical tasks or procedures (e.g., holding a pencil, letter formation). These techniques typically consist of several elements including naming the skill or strategy, stating the purpose of the skill or strategy and explaining when to use it, connecting it to prior learning and experiences, demonstrating it, alerting learners about errors to avoid, and assessing the use of the skill or strategy. Modelling/demonstrating includes a narrative about the declarative, procedural, conditional, and reflective components of learning. Learners are being taught how to do something and how to analyze their success when doing it.

Using a daily agenda provides learners with a sense of accomplishment, a

sense of when activities begin and end, and an understanding that the instructor comes to class

with a plan.

3. Thinking aloud. Thinking aloud involves orally describing how one makes decisions, implements skills, activates problem-solving approaches, and evaluates whether success has been achieved. The purpose of a think-aloud is to provide an opportunity for learners to see how more skilled others synthesize skills and to show habits of mind. It can also encourage learners to become aware of their own thinking processes.

4. Noticing. Noticing refers to teachers’ abilities to observe learners’ understanding and plan/adapt lessons based on need. Closely linked to the second step of the gradual release of responsibility framework, guided instruction, when teachers notice how learners respond to instruction, teachers can provide appropriate scaffolding without simplifying the content or processes. Noticing involves interpreting how learners respond to instruction so scaffolding of appropriate questions, cues and prompts can be provided.

Examples in Context

Although the level of the learners is very low in Mu’s class, the instructor always starts with an agenda. In Lesson Plan 1 (see Section 3) the agenda provides a plan for the class involving an imperative verb (e.g., Say

word; See video) and is supported with gestures and/or visuals. The agenda is referred to throughout the lesson and is checked off as activities are completed. This provides learners with a sense of accomplishment, a sense of when activities begin and end, and an understanding that the instructor comes to

class with a plan.

In Mu’s class, learners are developing their ability to understand that print can be used for different purposes such as providing instructions. Once the vocabulary and phrases are developed in the first whole aspect of the lesson by naming real items, singing a song, and miming actions, the instructor focuses attention on photographs. Learners are guided to identify the items in the photos, and the instructor models how to connect the imperative sentences to the photographs by pointing to the photos, singing the familiar song, and doing the familiar actions. The instructor provides brief and simple verbal descriptions of this as learners’ listening and speaking skills are very low. Refer to Lesson Plan 1 for to see how Focused Instruction is incorporated in the skill development phase of this lesson.

Students in Adama’s class are working on learning how to set purposes for reading. In this lesson (see Lesson Plan 3 in Section 3), the instructor models through a think-aloud how to set a purpose for reading. During this modelling phase, the instructor provides declarative (i.e., purposes are plans for reading that guide our attention while reading), procedural (i.e., think about what you already know, what you would like to know, and make a list of questions), and conditional knowledge (i.e., can be used for all types of texts, and it helps you prepare for and focus on reading) for setting purposes before reading (Almasi & Fullerton, 2012). The instructor provides the following information:

I brainstormed a list of what I already know about the esophagus. You can see from this list that I know that the esophagus is a tube that brings food from the mouth to the stomach. I also know about some parts that are connected to the esophagus. I know that the esophagus is a tube that connects the mouth to the stomach. I know that there is a valve at the top

ESL adult literacy learners have gaps in their first language literacy development, so explicitly teaching them the what, how, and why of using reading skills and strategies is

required to move these learners forward in their use of literacy skills

and strategies.

because it is beside the wind pipe. The wind pipe opens for breathing, and the esophagus opens for swallowing. I know that at the bottom of the esophagus there is also a valve because my husband sometimes gets heartburn. This is when there is a burning feeling in the chest when the acid from the stomach moves up through the valve into the esophagus. I know that this is a problem from my husband and he has to take special medicine. This is what I know. But, I do have some questions. I wonder how the food moves through the esophagus – does it just fall down with the force of gravity, or is there something inside the esophagus like muscles or hairs that help the food move? I remember as a kid, my parents always telling me to eat while sitting up and not while lying down. Was this something to do with the esophagus and how food travels through it? I don’t know. I would like to find out more about this so I am going to write down my question: [write on the board] How does food move through the esophagus?

What is the value of it?

Individuals do not learn to read by maturation alone - individuals must be taught to read (Blair, Rupley, & Nichols, 2007; Fisher, Frey & Lapp, 2009). Focused instruction calls for explicit instruction on the parts of the whole-part-whole instructional approach. We know that ESL adult literacy learners have gaps in their

first language literacy development, so explicitly teaching them the what, how, and why of using reading skills and strategies is required to move these learners forward in their use of literacy skills and strategies.

Guided Instruction