Capítulo 2. Antecedentes y Marco Teórico
2.2 Marco Teórico
2.2.2. Principios Constitucionales de la Obligación Tributaria Territorial
recombinant HIV-1 RT activity by BA and BA-Zn. Inhibition rates were calculated according to the absorbance of the ELIZA Reader. Data expressed as means±SEM of at least three independent measurements. (From Wang et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res.
Commun., 324:605–610, 2004. With permission.)
References
Chan, F.L., Choi, H.L., Chen, Z.Y., Chan, P.S.F., and Huang, C.Y., Induction of apoptosis in prostate cancer cell lines by a flavonoid, baicalin, Cancer Lett., 160:219–228, 2000.
Chen, Z.Y., Su, Y.L., Lau, W.I., and Huang, Y., Endothelium-dependent contraction and direct relaxation induced by baicalin in rat mesenteric artery, Eur. J. Pharmacol., 374:41–47, 1999.
De Clerq, E., Current lead natural products for the chemotherapy of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection, Med. Res. Rev., 20:323–349, 2000.
Huang, Y., Wong, C.M., Lau, C.-W., Yao, X., Tsang, S.Y., Su, Y.L., and Chen, Y., Inhibition of nitric oxide/cyclic GMP-mediated relaxation by purified flavonoids, baicalin and baicalein, in rat aortic rings, Biochem. Pharmacol., 67:787–794, 2004.
Kitamura, K., Honda, M., Yoshizaki, H., Yamamoto, S., Nakane, H., Fukushima, M., Ono, K., and Tokunaga, T., Baicalin, an inhibitor of HIV-1 production in vitro, Antiviral Res., 37:131–140, 1998.
Li, B.Q., Fu, T., Dongyan, Y. Mikovitz, J.A.n Ruscettim, F.W., and Wang, J.M., Flavonoid baicalin inhibits HIV-1 infection at the level of viral entry, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 276:534–
538, 2000.
Lin, C.C. and Shieh, D.E., The anti-inflammatory activity of Scutellaria rivulas extracts and its active components, baicalin, baicalein and wogonin, Am. J. Clin. Chem., 24:31–36, 1996.
Matsuzaki, Y., Kurokawa, N., Terai, S., Matsumara, Y., Kobayashi, N., and Okita, K., Cell death induced by baicalein in human heptocellular carcinoma cell lines, Jpn. J. Cancer Res., 87:170–
177, 1996.
Motoo, Y. and Sawatu, N., Antitumor effects of saikosaponins, baicalin and baicalein on human heptoma cell lines, Cancer Lett., 86:91–95, 1994.
Po, L.S., Chen, Z.Y., Tsang, D.S.C., and Leung, L.K., Baicalein and genistein display differential actions on estrogen receptor (ER) transactivation and apoptosis in MCF-7 cells, Cancer Lett., 187:33–40, 2002.
Shen, Y.-C., Chiou, W.-F., Chou, Y.-C., and Chen, C.-F., Mechanisms in mediating the anti-inflammatory effects of baicalin and baicalein in human leukocytes, Eur. J. Pharmacol., 465:171–181, 2003.
Shi, H., Zhao, B., and Xin, W.J., Scavenging effects of baicalin on free radicals and its protection on erythrocyte membrane from free radical injury, Mol. Bio. Int., 35:981–984, 1995.
Wang, Q., Wang, Y.-T., Pu, S.-P., and Zheng, Y.-T., Zinc coupling potentiates anti-HIV activity of baicalin, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 324:605–610, 2004.
Zhang, L., Lin, G., and Zuo, Z. High-performance liquid chromatographic method for simultaneous determination of baicalein and baicalein 7-glucuronide in rat plasma, J. Pharmaceut. Biomed.
Anal., 36:637–641, 2004.
TABLE B.9
Effect of Various Fruit Extracts or Juices on NO Synthesis in Human Red-Cell Membrane
Addition to the Assay Mixture nmol NO Produced/h/mg Residue
None 0.012±0.005
Grape (purple) 2.1±0.054
Grape (green) 0.1±0.011
Note: Results are the mean±S.D. of six different experiments, each conducted in triplicate.
From Guha et al., Nutr. Res., 23:1081–1088, 2003. With permission.
Banana
Bananas (Musa Cavendish), one of the most popular fruits worldwide, is a source of antioxidants, vitamin C, vitamin E, and β-carotene. Someya and coworkers (2002) found bananas were also high in flavonoids, with the peel being a richer source of total phenolics (907 mg/100 dry wt) compared to the pulp (232 mg/100g dry wt). This difference was reflected by the antioxidant activity of the peel extract being 2.2 times greater than the pulp. Several flavonoids were identified, including gallocatechin, catechin, and epicatechin. Of these, gallocatechin exhibited the greatest antioxidant activity and was much higher in banana peel (158 mg/100 g dry weight) compared to the pulp (29.6 mg/100 g dry weight). These researchers recommended that banana peels be considered a functional food source for combating chronic diseases and should not be discarded.
A study in India by Guha et al. (2003) showed ripe banana (Musa paradisiacal sapientum) extracts stimulated the production of nitric oxide (NO) in human erythrocyte membranes. Nitric oxide is tumoricidal, as well as induces apoptosis and differentiation in neoplastic cells (Farias-Eisner et al., 1994; Jun et al., 1996). Stimulation of nitric oxide is catalyzed by a family of isoenzymes, nitric synthase (NOS). Incubation of human red-cell membranes with different fruit extracts showed ripe banana was the most potent stimulator of NO, followed by cucumber, apple, and lemon, with pear lacking any activity (Table B.9). Inclusion of ripe bananas in the diets of mice administered Ehrlich’s ascetic carcinoma cells showed that 70 percent of those animals receiving 2 g of ripe banana (wet weight/day) died within 35 days compared to the control group which died within 5–6 days. The ability of bananas to prevent or slow down the progression of ascetic carcinoma in mice could be extended to humans.
Vitamin A deficiency and chronic diseases are a particularly serious problem in Pacific Island countries. A recent paper by Englberger and coworkers (2003) pointed out the importance of bananas as significant sources of provitamin A and β- and α-carotenes, which could alleviate this problem in Micronesia.
References
Englberger, L., Schierle, J., Marks, G.C., and Fitzgerald, M.H., Micronesian banana, taro, and other foods: Newly recognized sources of provitamin A and other carotenoids, J. Food Comp. Anal., 16:3–19, 2003.
Farias-Eisner, R., Sherman, M.P., Aeberhard, E., and Chaudhuri, G., Nitric oxide is an important mediator for tumoricidal activity in vivo, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A., 91:9407–9411, 1994.
Guha, M., Basuray, S., and Sinha, A.K., Preventive effect of ripe banana in the diet on Ehrlich’s ascetic carcinoma cell induced malignant ascites in mice, Nutr. Res., 23:1081–1088, 2003.
Jun, C.-D., Lee, D.-K., and Cu, Y.-H., High-dose nitric oxide induces apoptosis in HL-60 human myeloid cells, Korean J. Exp.. Mol. Med., 28:101- 108, 1996.
Someya, S., Yoshiki, Y., and Okubo, K., Antioxidant compounds from bananas (Musa Cavendish), Food Chem., 79:351–354, 2002.
Barley
Barley is one of the major cereals grown worldwide and is particularly important in China. The major uses for barley are in malting, as well as for the feed industry.
Germinated barley foodstuff (GMF) obtained from the aleurone layer and scutellum fractions of malt consists mainly of dietary fiber and glutamine-rich protein. This material was found to have a preventive and therapeutic effect in an experimental colitis model (Kanauchi et al., 1997, 1998), as well as in patients with mild to moderate ulcerative colitis (Mitsuyama et al., 1998). Bamba and coworkers (2002) fed germinated barley to patients with mild to moderate active ulcerative colitis and found significant clinical and endoscopic improvements were associated with an increase in stool butyrate levels. These results suggested GMF was a new prebiotic for the treatment of ulcerative colitis. Deguchi and coworkers (2000) produced an anthocyanintannin type pigment from barley bran-fermented broth. The purple pigment, referred to as hordeumin, scavenged superoxide radicals in a dose-dependent manner, which was attributed to the bran poly phenols, such as proanthocyanidins.
Barley is also a good source of β-glucan, the mixed-linked (1→3), (1→4)-β-D-glucan, which has been shown to have important health benefits. The β-glucan content of winter-barley cultivars grown in different locations in China were similar to those grown in Canada and Australia (Zhang et al., 2002). Because of the significant interaction between cultivars and environment on β-glucan content, they emphasized the importance of planting appropriate barley cultivars in specific areas in order to maximize β-glucan levels.
References
Bamba, T., Kanauchi, O., Andoh, A., and Fujiyama, Y., A new prebiotic from germinated barley for nutraceutical treatment of ulcerative colitis, J. Gastroeneterol. Hepatol., 17:818–824, 2002.
Deguchi, T., Ohba, R., and Ueda, S., Radical scavenging activity of a purple pigment, hordeumin, from uncooked barley bran-fermented broth, J. Agric. Food Chem., 48:3198–3201, 2000.
Kanauchi, O., Nakamura, T., Agate, K., Mitsuyama, K., and Iwanaga, T., Effects of germinated barley foodstuff on dextran sulfate sodium-induced colitis in rats, J. Gastroenterol., 33:179–
188, 1998.
Kanauchi, O., Iwanaga, T., and Andoh, A., The dietary fibre fraction of germinated barley foodstuff (GMF) attenuated mucosal damage and diarrhea and accelerated repair of the colonic mucosa in a rate model of experimental colitis, J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol., 16:160–168, 2001.
Mitsuyama, K., Saiki, T., and Kanauchi, O., Treatment of ulcerative colitis with germinated barley foodstuff: A pilot study, Aliment. Pharmacol. Ther., 12:1225–1230, 1998.
Zhang, G., Junmei, W., and Jinxin, C., Analysis of β-glucan content in barley cultivars from different locations of China, Food Chem., 79:251–254, 2002.
Basil (Ocimum basilicum)
Basil (Ocimum basilum L.Laminiaceae) is a common herb used for culinary and medical purposes. The essential oil obtained from basil was reported to exhibit antimicrobial activity, as well as inhibit the fungus Aspergillus ochraceus and the production of ochratoxin A (Hili et al., 1997; Basilico and Basilico, 1999). A recent study by Opalchenova and Obreshkova (2003) identified the main components in basil by gas chromatography as linalool (59.5 percent), methylchavikol (12 percent), and methylcinnamate (7.2 percent). They also examined whether basil could inhibit multidrug-resistant clinical isolates of the genera Staphyloccocus, Enterococcus, and Pseudomonas. Basil proved
Linalool. (From Letizia et al., Food Chem. Toxicol., 41:943–964, 2003.
With permission.)
effective against these antibiotic-resistant tested bacteria with minimum inhibitory concentrations ranging from 0.0030–0.0007 percent.
Basil oil was also reported to exhibit antiinflammatory properties against carrageenan, PGE2, leukotriene, and arachidonic acid-induced paw edema in rats (Singh, 1998, 1999 a, b, c). Courreges and Benecia (2002) further explored possible immunomodulatory effects of basil oil on mouse macrophages. Exposure of macrophages to basil oil for a 24-hour period significantly inhibited phagocytosis, with complete inhibition with dilutions of 1:2000 and 1:1000 (Table B.10).
Javanmardi et al. (2003) screened 23 Iranian basils as sources of antioxidants and phenolics. They found them to be good sources of antioxidants because of their strong radical-scavenging activities. A positive linear relationship was observed between antioxidant activity and total phenolic acids for the basil samples examined.
References
Basilico, M.Z. and Basilico, J.C., Inhibitory effects of some spice essential oils on Aspergillus ochraceus NRRL 3174 growth and ochratoxin A production, Lett. Appl. Micobiol., 29:135–141, 1999.
Courreges, M.C. and Benecia, F., In vitro antiphagocytic effect of basil oil on mouse macrophages, Fitoterapia, 73:369–374, 2002.
Hili, P., Evans, C.S., and Veness, R.G., Antimicrobial action of essential oils: The effect of dimethyl sulfoxide on the activity of cinnamon oil, Lett. Appl. Microbiol., 24:269–275, 1997.
Javanmardi, J., Stushnoff, C., Locke, E., and Vivanco, J.M., Antioxidant activity and total phenol content of Iranian Ocimum accessions, Food Chem., 83: 547–550, 2003.
Letizia, C.S., Cocchiara, J., Lalko, J., and Api, A.M., Fragrance material review of linalool, Food Chem. Toxicol., 41:943–964, 2003.
Opalchenova, G. and Obreshkova, D., Comparative studies on the activity of basil—an essential oil from Ocimum basilicum L., J. Micobiol. Methods, 54:105–110, 2003.
Singh, S., Comparative evaluation of anti-inflammatory potential of fixed oil of different species of Ocimum and its possible mechanism of action, Indian J. Exp. Biol., 36:1028–1031, 1998.
Singh, S., Mechanism of action of anti-inflammatory effect of fixed oil of Ocimum basilicum Linn, Indian J. Exp. Biol., 37:248–252, 1999a.
TABLE B.10
Effect of Basil Oil and Phagocytic Activity and Respiratory Burst in Mouse Peritoneal Macrophages
Basil-oil
Dilution Percent of
Phagocytosis Percent Cells Including Precipitated Formazan
1p<0.005; 2p<0.05; nsNot significant.
Source: From Courreges and Benecia, Fitoterapia, 73:369–374, 2002. With permission.
Singh, S., Evaluation of gastric antiulcer activity of fixed oil of Ocumum basilicum Linn and its possible mechanism of action, Indian J. Exp. Biol., 37:253–257, 1999b.
Singh, S., Effect of Ocimum sanctum fixed oil on vascular permeability and leukocytes migration, Indian J. Exp. Biol., 37:1136–1138, 1999c.
Beans
Beans are an important part of our diet and represent a good source of protein and nutrients. The consumption of beans, particularly in Mexico, has a long history and was estimated at 19.5 kg/annum per capita (Gonzalez de Mejia, 1990). The importance of phenolic compounds in plant foods, including beans, is related to their effect on nutritional and esthetic properties. In addition to their antioxidant and chelating properties, they are able to scavenge reactive-oxygen species and electrophiles, as well as modulate cellular-enzyme activities (Huang and Ferraro, 1992). The antimutagenic properties of the phenolic compounds from common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) were reported by Gonzalez de Maija et al. (1999). The majority of poly phenols were located in the seed coat with negligible amounts in the cotyledons. The key antimutagenic compounds in beans, easily extracted with methanol, were phenols, while low-molecular-weight hydrolyzable phenols were present in the aqueous extract. The phenolic compounds specifically identified were catechin, tannic acid, and ellagic acid. These compounds were effective against the mutagenic activities of 1-nitropyrene (1-NP) and benzo[α]pyrene using the Salmonella typhimurium tester strain YG1024 in the plateincorporation test. Dose-dependent inhibition was observed for all the samples tested. Doses of 500 µg equivalent catechin/plate resulted in 63%, 81%, and 83%
inhibition for water, water/methanol, and methanol extracts, respectively. The greatest inhibition was evident for the methanol extract at lower doses of 50 µg equivalent catechin/plate. These results were consistent with earlier findings by Mandal and coworkers (1987) regarding the antimutagenic effects of ellagic acid.
References
Gonzalez de Mejia, E., Caracterizacion fiscoquimica e implicaciones nutricias de las lectinas de frijol tepari y sus hibridos, Ph.D dissertation, CIN-VESTAV-Unidad Irapuato, Irapuato, Gto, Mexico, 1990.
Gonzalez de Mejia, E., Castano-Tostado, E., and Loarca-Pina, G., Antimutagenic effects of natural phenolic compounds in beans, Met. Res. Gen. Toxicol. Environ. Mutageneis., 441:1–9, 1999.
Huang, M. and Ferraro, T., Phenolic compounds in food and cancer prevention, in Phenolic Compounds in Food and their Effects on Health. II. Analysis, Occurrence and Chemistry, C.Ho, C., Lee, C.Y., and Huang, M., Eds., American Chemical Society, Washington, D.C., 1992, pp.
8–35.
Mandal, S., Ahuja, A., Shivapurkar, N.M., Sheng, S.J., Groopman, J.D., and Stoner, G.D., Inhibition of aflatoxin B in Salmonella typhimurium and DNA damage in cultured rat and human tracheobronchial tissues by ellagic acid, Carcinogenesis, 8:1651–1656, 1987.
Bearberry
see also Uva-ursi Bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi L.) is a small shrub that grows in the northern latitudes and high mountains of Europe, Asia, and America. Its astringent leaves have medicinal properties and are used as a disinfectant in the treatment of lower urinary-tract infections. One of the principal components of bearberry-leaf extracts is arbutin (hydroquinone-1-O-β-D-glucoside), which forms urinary metabolites that are conjugates with glucuronic and sulfuric acids (Paper et al., 1993; Siegers et al., 1997).
These metabolites appear to be precursors of hydroquinone, which is released in the lower urinary tract where it kills or inhibits bacteria. Pegg and coworkers (2001) reported the presence of a natural antioxidant in the ethanol extracts of bearberry leaves, which proved to be very effective in nitrite-free processed meats. Bacterial surface hydrophobicity appears to be related to the ability of certain pathogens to cause infection.
Thus, an increase in hydrophobicity is strongly correlated with enhanced pathogenic potential (Absolom, 1988; Andersson et al., 1998). Altering surface hydrophobicity could provide an effective way of decreasing the viability of pathogenic bacteria in food or in the
Arbutin (1, R=CH2OH) and hydroquinone glucuronide (1, R=COOH) and hydroquinone sulfate potassium salt (2). (From Glockle et al., J.
Chromatogr. B, 761:261–266, 2001. With permission.)
gastrointestinal tract. Annuk et al. (1999) compared aqueous extracts of four medicinal plants, including bearberry, on the cell surface hydrophobicity of the Gram-negative pathogen Hylobacter pylori. Bearberry extract proved to be the richest source of tannic acid and was attributed for the decrease in cell surface hydrophobicity and its antibacterial activity against Hylobacter pylori. Recent work by Dykes and coworkers (2003 a) examined the effect of an antioxidant ethanolic extract from bearberry leaves on the surface hydrophobicity of 25 food-related bacteria. The bearberry extract significantly decreased the hydrophobicity of only four bacteria, while significantly increasing the hydrophobicity of 14. These researchers cautioned against marketing a particular extract, such as bearberry, based on a single claim, as there may be detrimental effects on food-related bacteria associated with such nutraceuticals. For example, increased antibiotic resistance in bacteria was recently associated with their exposure to certain neutraceutical
extracts (Ward et al., 2002). However, Dykes et al. (2003b) also studied the effect of an ethanolic extract from bearberry, alone or in combination with nisin, on 25 food-related bacteria. Although bearberry did not exhibit any antimicrobial activity, it enhanced the antibacterial efficacy of nisin against Gram-positive bacteria, particularly Brochothrix thermosphacta.
References
Absolom, D.R., The role of bacterial hydrophobicity in infection: Bacterial adhesion and phagocyte ingestion, Can. J. Microbiol., 34:287–298, 1988.
Andersson, A., Granum, P.E., and Ronner, U., The adhesion of Bacillus cereus spores to epithelial cells might be an additional virulence mechanism, Internal. J. Food Microbiol., 39:93–99, 1998.
Annuk, H., Hirmo, S., Turi, E., Mikelsaar, M., Arak, E., and Wadstrom, T., Effect on cell surface hydrophobicity and susceptibility of Helicobacter pylori, FEMS Microbiol. Lett., 172:41–45, 1999.
Dykes, G.A., Amarowicz, R., and Pegg, R.B., An antioxidant bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) extract modulates surface hydrophobicity of a wide range of food-related bacteria: Implications for functional food safety, Food Control, 14:515–518, 2003a.
Dykes, G.A., Amarowicz, R., and Pegg, R.B., Enhancement of nisin antibacterial activity by a bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) leaf extract, Food Microbiol., 20:211–216, 2003b.
Glockl, I., Blaschke, G., and Veit, M., Validated methods for direct determination of hydroquinone glucuronide and sulfate in human urine after oral intake of bearberry leaf extract by capillary zone electrophoresis, J. Chromatogr., B. 761:261–266, 2001.
Paper, D.H., Kohler, J., and Franz, G., 1993. Bioavailability of drug preparations containing a leaf extract of Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.), Pharmaceut. Pharmacol. Lett., 3:63–66, 1993.
Pegg, R.B., Amarowicz, R., and Barl, B., Applications of plant phenolics in model and meat systems, in Proceedings of the 47th International Congress of Meat Science. Technology, Krakow, Poland, Vol. II, 234–235, 2001.
Siegers, C.P., Siegers, J.P., Pentz, C., Bodinet, C., and Freudenstein, J., Metabolism of arbutin from uva ursi-extracts in humans, Pharm. Pharmacol. Lett., 7: 90–92, 1997.
Ward, P., Fasitsas, S., and Katz, S.E., Inhibition, resistance development, and increased antibiotic and antimicrobial resistance caused by nutraceuticals, J. Food Prot., 65:528–533, 2002.
Beer
Epidemiological studies showed an inverse relationship between moderate ethanol consumption and risk of coronary heart disease