Problemas de conducta internalizantes

Wildlife Camera Trapping

Attaining high levels of safety for the field researchers and the target mammals are imperative when conducting mammal monitoring techniques. Wildlife camera trapping is the least invasive form of mammal monitoring compared to other methods such as mark-recapture or GPS devices due to the minimal amount of interference between the researchers and wildlife (Bater et al. 2011). This approach is ideal for target species such as large riparian carnivores that may be extremely dangerous or difficult to physically handle (Kauffman et al. 2007). Wildlife camera trapping methods also reduces the risk of field biologist contracting infectious diseases such as rabies (Lyssavirus), hantivirus, and lymes disease (Borreliella burgdorferi), from handling wild animals (Martin 2009). Alonso et al. (2015) pointed out that traditional capture methods have become relatively obsolete now that virtual monitoring can also depict the

presence, absence, distribution, and relative abundance of mammal species. Clearly, noninvasive wildlife camera trapping methods are fundamentally safer for both the observer and the target species due to the lack of interference.

GPS Devices: Radio Collars and Radio-Transmitting Implants

Applying GPS devices in the form of radio collars has been proven to be a moderately safe approach to track mammals such as beavers, coyotes, gray fox, mountain lions, bobcats, and brush rabbits (Moriarty et al. 2012). However, implanting radio-transmitters in younger mammal individuals entails a separate set of serious challenges and health risks. Both forms of GPS devices involve different levels of safety for both the field researchers and the captured mammal individuals.

Radio collar battery replacements must be conducted in regular intervals to ensure that mammals do not outgrow their collars before the next recapture procedure (Moriarty et al. 2012). Some radio collars are equipped with expandable collars, however, they have been unsuccessful for species such as bobcats (Lynx rufus), mountain lions (Puma concolor), foxes (Vulpes), and bears (Ursidae) (Moriarty et al. 2012). Due to their low expansion range, radio collars are more suitable for adult individuals that no longer display rapid growth rates. The consistent recapture procedure for battery replacements can be challenging and labor-intensive for species that are difficult to trap (Moriarty et al. 2012). Clearly, every recapture process poses a threat to mammal individuals, especially for species that display aggressive or defensive behavior such as mountain lion, bobcat, and bear.

Implanting radio-transmitters is more advantageous than external radio collars specifically for newly born and juvenile mammals for a variety of reasons. First, radio-

transmitting implants do not impede on mammal growth, as it is an internal GPS device. Second, the juvenile mammal cannot lose the implant device from external causes. More specifically, the mother cannot remove the implant since it is surgical inserted in the mammal individual. And third, the placement of the implant is closer to the center of gravity of the mammal individual (Moriarty et al. 2012). Capturing juvenile mammal individuals to perform implant surgery requires biologist to take a cautious approach in waiting for the mother to leave their young (Moriarty et al. 2012). This has been successfully conducted by maintaining constant

communication between the researchers and the team of veterinarians that are performing the surgical procedures (Moriarty et al. 2012). Implanting procedures are relatively brief and can be conducted within 10 minutes by utilizing effective anesthetics to reduce overall animal stress and to ensure safety of the captured individuals (Moriarty et al. 2012).

Moriarty et al. (2012) reported no fatalities or internal health implications of the studied individuals from implanting GPS radio-transmitters. However, it is critical to recognize that field biologists are taking serious risks when capturing juvenile mammalian species and performing implant surgeries. Even though implant surgeries can be performed within 10 minutes; there is still a risk of medical complications with conducting any surgical procedure. Also, territorial mothers can harm field veterinarians if they are seen capturing their young (Moriarty et al.

2012). Thus, performing implant procedures may lead to serious safety implication for the both juvenile mammals and field veterinarians.

Also, it is critical to recognize that every capture and recapture procedure poses a risk to the mammal individual, especially for species that may be difficult to capture (Moriarty et al. 2012). Even though Moriarty et al. (2012) and Hamilton et al. (2010) reported no deaths from applying radio collars and radio-transmitting implants, there is still a health risk of using invasive methods of GPS devices.

Mark-Recapture

Live trapping systems used for mark-recapture methods do not compromise the safety of mammal individuals. Marking protocols are conducted by applying ear tags, staining the animal with temporary dyes, and clipping the nails or fur, which are all considered a less invasive form of marking and tracking, compared to GPS devices. Queheillalt and Morrison (2006) marked their captured riparian mammals by clipping the fur in the rear area with scissors to distinguish the captured amongst the recaptured individuals. Instead of the fur clipping method used by Queheillalt and Morrison (2006), Lomolino and Perault (2001) clipped the toenail as a marking tactic after mammals were captured, measured, and recorded to inflict minimal impacts for the captured individuals.

Similar to GPS devices, every recapture procedure poses a threat to mammal individuals, especially for species that are difficult to capture (Moriarty et al. 2012). The marking procedure may not impose high risks to the mammal individual, yet the act of frequently capturing and recapturing mammal individuals can inflict harm and stress to mammal individuals.

Fecal DNA Surveying

The main benefit to fecal DNA surveying is that it is considered a less harmful and noninvasive technique to quantifying relative population abundance and spatial occupancy. Similar to noninvasive wildlife camera trapping, scat surveying requires minimal amounts of contact between the researchers and wildlife, which ensures high levels of safety. By conducting fecal DNA surveying compared to other methods of monitoring that require contact or handling

of wild animals, the researchers is greatly reduce the risk of contracting infectious diseases such as rabies (Lyssavirus), hantivirus, and lymes disease (Borreliella burgdorferi) (Martin 2009).