PROBLEMAS DEL PACIENTE CON LUMBALGIA

Calorimeters are used to measure the energy and position of particles and serves for the identification of different types of particles. Calorimeters are sensitive not

3.4 The H1 Detector 37

only to charged, but also to neutral particles by detecting their charged secondaries. Calorimeters play a very important role at high energies since the relative energy resolution improves as Δ(E)/E ∼E−1/2 _{at largeE, and in addition, they can provide}

reasonably fast signal, important for making the trigger decisions.

The H1 calorimeter system contains four separate detectors: The Liquid Argon calorimeter (LAr) covers the central and forward region of the H1 detector. In the very forward part it is complemented by the PLUG calorimeter and in the backward region by the Spaghetti Calorimeter (SpaCal). Finally, the hadronic Tail Catcher measures the energy leaking out of the LAr calorimeter.

3.4.2.1 The Liquid Argon Calorimeter

The Liquid Argon calorimeter [67] is the most important detector for measurements of energies and emission angles of particles produced in theep collisions.

In order to detect electromagnetic as well as hadronic final state particles the LAr calorimeter is designed as a sampling calorimeter composed of two sections: an inner electromagnetic (EM) region and an outer hadronic (HAD) region, as shown in fig- ure 3.11. The LAr calorimeter has an acceptance in polar angular range 4◦ ≤θ≤154◦. It has a high granularity of ≈45000 cells to ensure good spatial resolution of the de- posited energies. As a sampling calorimeter it has cells constructed from absorber material plates separated by gaps filled with Liquid Argon as active medium. The absorber material is lead in the EM section and stainless steel in the HAD section.

When an incident particle interacts with the absorbing material it produces sec- ondary particles which will generate further particles. A particle shower, or cascade, will develop in this way while the energy of the initial particle is shared among the cascade particles. This process will continue until the shower particles lose their en- ergy in the calorimeter via interactions with the atoms of the detector material. The energy lost in the active layers is measured. Electrons and photons lose their en- ergy in the absorbing material via bremsstrahlung and pair production, respectively. The electromagnetic secondaries interact themselves electromagnetically at the char- acteristic scale of the radiation length. Hadronic particles scatter inelastically and elastically on the absorber nuclei. A hadronic shower develops through the secondary particles interaction, at the scale determined by the nuclear apsorbtion length. Since this length is larger than the corresponding radiation length, hadronic calorimeters are larger than electromagnetic shower detectors. The depth of the EM section is

≈ 20−30 radiation lengths. The HAD section depth is ≈5−8 interaction lengths. In the longitudinal direction the calorimeter is split into 8 different “wheels” as can be seen from the schematic view presented in figure 3.11 (a):

• Inner and Outer Forward calorimeters (IF, OF);

• Forward Barrel calorimeter modules (FB1, FB2);

(a)

(b)

Interaction Point

Figure 3.11: The Liquid Argon calorimeter. (a) Side view (r−z plane), showing the orientation of the absorber layers in the upper and the segmentation into read-out channels (≈45000) in the lower half. As can be seen, the calorimeter is composed of an inner electromagnetic and the outer hadronic section. In addition, the segmentation into wheels is shown: inner forward (IF), outer forward (OF), forward (FB), central (CB) and backward barrel (BBE). (b) The radial view, showing the segmentation into read-out cells in ther−φplane.

• Backward Barrel Electromagnetic calorimeter (BBE).

In the azimuthal direction, each wheel is divided into the 8 octants (figure 3.11 (b)). Due to mechanical tolerances there are narrow regions between the wheels (z-cracks) and between the phi octants (φ-cracks) without active medium.

It is a typical non-compensating calorimeter. Non-compensating means that the response for hadrons of a given energy is not equal to that of electrons or photons. For the same energy hadrons deposit∼20−30% less energy than electromagnetic particles of the same original energy due to losses in nuclear excitations and break-up of nuclei, as well as production of neutrinos and muons (mostly from π decay). The hadronic energy response is corrected in software through the weighting techniques [68].

The advantages of LAr calorimeters are: good stability, homogeneity of the re- sponse [69], ease of calibration and high granularity which opens up the possibility to measure precisely the angles of scattered photons. Furthermore, the LAr calorimeter is used to identify the local electromagnetic energy depositions. The disadvantage of this calorimeter is electronic noise pickup because the un-amplified signal from the ionisation needs to be transported over many meters to the amplifier electronics located outside of the detector.

The energy resolution is determined from test beam measurements [67,70,71] to be

σ(E)/E = 11%/E/GeV⊕1% for electromagnetically interacting particles (electrons and photons), andσ(E)/E= 50%/E/GeV⊕2% for hadrons.

3.4 The H1 Detector 39

The Spaghetti Calorimeter

The Spaghetti calorimeter [72,73] (SpaCal) consists of lead sheets in which scintillating fibres (“spaghetti”) are embedded. Particle showers in the lead cause the fibres to scintillate and the light is transported to photo-multipliers where it is converted into an electric pulse. It has an electromagnetic and a hadronic component and provides information in the backward region of the detector (153◦ < θ <178◦). In SpaCal the scattered electrons from NC reactions with low Q2 (<100 GeV2) are measured. The SpaCal signals have a time resolution of about 1 ns which is useful in the first trigger level to reject background events coming from upstream together with the protons. In the analysis presented here the SpaCal is used only to reject background (beam-wall, beam-gas) and to veto non-CCep interactions.