Problemas secundarios

Genre is an important intertextual aspect of adaptation. Film shares with the novel certain genres, such as comedy, melodrama and tragedy, whilst others are purely film-specific, for example, the animated cartoon, which depends on the moving image and editing.

Stam & Raengo, like Bakhtin before him, also insists that adaptation is a hybrid genre that mixes literary and film genres, often carrying over elements from previous literary genres and older arts (2005: 25).

Gaidai’s adaptation of Twelve Chairs is an explicit example of this intertextual process. His Dvenadtsat’ is an amalgamation of cartoons, the documentary and feature film mode, and silent film techniques such as speeding up, intertitles and so on. For an adaptation that follows the original plot(s) relatively closely, Gaidai’s film is, at times, surprisingly cinematic, whilst some of the dialogues between Vorobianinov and Ostap are rather theatrical (the latter was noted in Bogomolov’s 1971 article, whose title ‘Ravnenie po Rampu’ translates as ‘Alignment at the Footlights’). Under close examination the film shows a return to some of the earliest stages of cinema, mixing episodes of silent comedy

style and technique with cinema as filmed theatrical spectacle. The reasons for this could be the lack of props from the NEP period (Frolov 1991), Gaidai’s affinity for eccentricity, and, possibly, because the two main actors (Sergei Filippov and Archil Gomiashvili) were more stage than film actors.

By 1970 Gaidai had developed a recognizable signature style with an affinity for physical gags and character masks, which can be traced back to the ‘early cinema of attractions’,⁵¹ to the amusement park and to vaudeville, which in turn developed from popular fairground theatre.⁵² Tom Gunning has successfully argued that avant-garde cinema sprang from the same diverse sources of popular entertainment as the very early cinema of the period 1885-1906, which aimed primarily to entertain the masses via excitement and amuzement in the style of the then immensely popular circus and vaudeville variety (acts) shows. I claim that this is the reason why the carnivalesque mode (both as form and a strategy) is inherently hybrid, polyphonic and subversive, as it has retained its democratic origins of the fairground, mass popular entertainment trend. I also claim that avant-garde and early silent comedy cinema display a similar episodic, fragmented structure, driven by an eclectic amalgam of technical, experimental, acrobatic or commedia dell’arte-like physical gags, rather than by one coherent linear narrative (as in later Hollywood genre cinema). As mentioned in 1.4, Bakhtin has argued that fairground theatre, particularly the masks of the rogue, the clown and the fool, have played an important role in world literature and art, spreading anti-hegemonic, democratic ideas around the world (1981: 158-67). His claims are supported by studies of fairground puppet theatre (N. I. Smirnova 1983) and developed by Clark in her article on the ‘carnivalesque sense of the world’ as the actual travelling mode in world literature, the extra-local (democratic global) perspective in art (2002: 280-81).

Significantly, Gaidai’s 1960s carnivalesque comedies featuring the famous comedy trio ViNiMor (standing for Georgii Vitsin, Iurii Nikulin and Evgenii Morgunov) have now entered permanently into Russian folklore. The trio of stooges represent the negative sides of Soviet reality. They are anti-heroes, with character masks of the drunk – Vitsin;

51 This is a term conjured up by Tom Gunning, in 1989, establishing the link between early cinema and Eisenstein’s theory of film editing, the ‘montage of attractions’. The latter’s purpose was maximum impact on the senses, aiming to trigger strong emotive audience response. This principle was used by many early and 1960s avant-garde filmmakers, and also for propaganda purposes – by both the Soviets and the Nazis, for example. Today such examples of excessive, visual carnivalesque style are seen in TV commercials and MTV music videos.

52 For more on the subject see Gunning’s article in Thomas Elsaesser & Adam Barker 1989: 56-62.

the fool – Nikulin (the most loved Soviet clown); and the conman – Morgunov. Ostap Bender is also an archetypal character mask of a pícaro / trickster – the anti-hero of transition. All these characters are rogues who desire an easy life and try to take advantage of the loopholes in the Soviet system. Their misadventures mainly serve to produce joyful comic laughter and entertainment; yet, they also unmask some fundamental problems within the Soviet system. ViNiMor’s archetypal character masks have an apparent puppet quality about them, for example, it is enough to point out to the guignolesque physicality of their gags such as Vitsin’s spinning head in Kavkazskaia plennitsa / Kidnapping Caucasian Style (1967).⁵³

Frolov was amongst the first to note that early cinema was based on such character masks, borrowed from commedia dell’arte and popular fairground theatre (1991: 64). He observes that after Kavkazskaia plennitsa it was clear that Gaidai was the only master of eccentric comedy in Soviet Russia (Frolov 1991: 74). He also claims that Gaidai’s quasi-silent, carnivalesque aesthetics are proof that ‘pure comedy is only possible in silent film comedy’ (Frolov 1991: 62). Like others before him, Frolov concludes, however, that pure or not ‘comedy is always critical’, whilst in Soviet Russia no one liked to be criticized (1991: 79).

Some biographical information here can help to contextualize Gaidai’s oeuvre. Gaidai was the son of a Ukrainian political activist exiled to Siberia. After graduating in 1947 from the Studio School of the Irkutsk District Drama Theatre, Gaidai enrolled in Grigorii Aleksandrov’s workshop at the Soviet State Film School VGIK, which he left in 1955 (Rollberg 2009: 235). As argued by Maia Turovskaia, Aleksandrov’s comedies were generally loved by the public; nevertheless, they were later considered illustrations of a distorted, official version of Soviet life, examples of socialist realism, and vehicles for Stalinist propaganda (Turovskaia in Horton 1993: 75). However, Gaidai’s first work as a film director was as an assistant to Boris Barnet on the comedy Liana (1955). As noted by M. Pupsheva, V. Ivanov and V. Tsukerman, this experience must have influenced greatly his development as an eccentric comedy filmmaker (2002: 49).

Significantly, Barnet started his career in film as a member of Lev Kuleshov’s workshop. Kuleshov is known as the father of Soviet cinema and the first Soviet avant-garde filmmaker to realize the subversive cinematic potential of Hollywood’s silent

53 From now on I shall refer to the film as Kavkazskaia plennitsa.

comedies. He experimented with some of his North American colleagues’ findings in a search for an authentic Soviet film style. This is evident in his feature film debut:

Neobychainye prikliuchenia mistera Vesta v strane bol’shevikov / The Extraordinary Adventures of Mr West in the Land of the Bolsheviks (1924),⁵⁴ where Barnet played the part of cowboy Jeddy. Soon after, Barnet left Kuleshov’s workshop and together with Iakov Protazanov became one of the most commercially successful filmmakers in Soviet Russia. However, his film Dom na Trubnoi / The House on Trubnaia Street, made in 1928, (one of Andrei Tarkovskii’s favourite avant-garde films), is proof of his artistic merits as one of the greatest Soviet avant-garde filmmakers. His comedies, on the other hand, were much more popular with the public than Kuleshov’s Mr West. By the end of 1929, just like some other commercially successful or avant-garde filmmakers, he was accused of catering for bourgeois tastes, and eventually his early achievements were almost forgotten. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, however, he was reinstated as one of the most important Soviet avant-garde film artists.⁵⁵

Gaidai and Barnet seem to have shared a fondness for Charlie Chaplin’s comedies. A comparison between Barnet’s comedies, particularly his Devushka s korobkoi / Girl with a Hatbox (1927), and Gaidai’s 1960s comedies demonstrate a similar preference for speedy action and slapstick, that is, a comedy driven by physical gags. The trio of drunken musicians from Barnet’s Liana seem likely to have prompted the birth of Gaidais’s famous trio of stooges ViNiMor.

Just like Gutiérrez Alea, then, Gaidai found Charlie Chaplin, Harold Lloyd and Buster Keaton’s silent film comedies more inspirational and cinematic than contemporary American and Soviet romantic, narrative driven comedies. As noted by Frolov, for Gaidai there were never enough gags or speedy action, particularly cross-country chases (Frolov 1991: 55). Prokhorov has also argued that Gaidai privileged a visual, more purely cinematic humour over the verbal, basing his work on a chain of loosely connected physical sight gags. This structure became his signature style, the filmmaker thus rejecting a coherent linear narrative (Prokhorov 2003: 456). According to Noël Carroll’s definition:

Sight gag is a form of visual humour in which amusement is generated by the play of alternative interpretations projected by the image or the images series […]. And it is

54 From now on I shall refer to the film as Mr West.

55 See Denise Youngblood on Barnet (Youngblood 1992: 127-37).

this play of alternative, often conflicting interpretations, rooted first and foremost in the visual organisation of the scene that primarily causes the amusement that attends sight gag. (1991: 26)

Rollberg also confirms that Leonid Gaidai’s best pictures ‘are highly original, fast-paced buffooneries, with visual humour prevailing over the verbal’; his ‘humour is enriched with sufficient satiric spice yet never turns bitter’; his gags are perfectly timed, a rare achievement, which made him the most popular Soviet director in the 1960s (Rollberg 2009: 237).

Frolov, who had known Gaidai since their university years, notes that the director used Eisenstein’s ‘Montage of Atractions’ for comedy gags and tricks (1991: 38). His claim supports Prokhorov’s contention that in his 1960s comedies Gaidai was performing a ‘reevaluation of Stalinist culture’, recycling 1920s avant-garde comedy themes and therefore reclaiming their achievements and traditions (2003: 459). His comedies display preference for visual expressivity and comic ambiguity over narrative (or ideological) clarity. This is why his best films are quasi-silent, recalling the comedies of the Hollywood’s silent masters. They foreground physical action and visual disorientation, and use any opportunity to turn narrative elements into physical gags. Their physical aggression and visual disorientation achieves a comic effect similar to that of popular puppet (fairground) theatre.

It is important to note that Gaidai’s first full length feature film, Zhenikh s togo sveta / A Bridegroom from the Other World (1958)⁵⁶ – a caustic satire about the monumental absurd Soviet bureaucratic apparatus – was cut down to 47 minutes and so harshly criticized that he almost gave up the comedy genre and did not make another satire until 1992. As reported by Pupsheva, Ivanov and Tsukerman, the film was rejected and criticized by a great number of different committees and bureaucratic institutions, until reaching eventually Nikolai Mikhailov, the Soviet Minister of Culture himself (Pupsheva, Ivanov and Tsukerman 2002: 61). The Minister’s angry reaction had devastating effects, and not only for Gaidai’s first satire: he called the film ‘a lampooning of Soviet reality’, and the press criticized it for the ‘absence of positive characters’ (Pupsheva, Ivanov &

Tsukerman 2002: 67; Rollberg 2009: 236).

Interestingly, the film was very similar in theme and aesthetics to Gutiérrez Alea’s bitter caustic satire of the ubiquitous Cuban bureaucratic system, La muerte. Both films

56 From now on I shall refer to the film with its original Russian title ─ Zhenikh s togo sveta.

use the carnivalesque strategies of excess and grotesque realism to expose the absurdity of socialist bureaucracy, which defied even the natural laws of life and death, proclaiming the primacy of a piece of official paper over the physical facts of life. Such thematic similarities could be mere coincidence; however, one can argue that both directors were responding to an intrinsic problem within the socialist system ─ the need for such monstrous bureaucratic apparatus. As observed by Lev Lainer, owing to this incident Gaidai had to wait a few years before working independently again (2001: 16-17).

In 1961, Gaidai made two phenomenally successful short features: Pes Barbos I neobychnyi kross / Barbos the Dog and an Unusual Cross-Country Race and Samogonshchiki / Bootleggers. They introduced his trio of stooges (who immediately became part of popular Soviet folklore), and, rather significantly, the theme of the Russians’ favourite pastime ─ vodka drinking (Pupsheva, Ivanov & Tsukerman 2002:

90). His next three comedies, on contemporary subject matters, enjoyed phenomenal success at the box office and made him the most prominent Soviet comedy director of the 1960s. These films were Operatsia Y / Operation Y (1965), Kavkazskaia plennitsa and Brilliantovaia Ruka / The Diamond Arm (1968).⁵⁷ All were adventure stories containing thriller and slapstick elements with increasingly satirical subversive currents. They mocked shallow political rhetoric, criminal behaviour and hypocrisy. Frolov testifies that after Kavkazskaia Plennitsa Gaidai wanted to go back to his first love ─ satire (1991:

104). According to Lainer, the two most popular Gaidai comedies ─ Kavkazskaia Plennitsa and Brilliantovaia Ruka, viewed by around 77 million viewers each (the former was seen by 76.54 million people, the latter by 76.7million) almost got shelved by the censors for containing anti-Soviet material.⁵⁸ By mere chance, Leonid Brezhnev, who loved Gaidai’s comedies, asked to see his latest works and found them very entertaining.

This persuaded the censors to release the films with minimal changes (Lainer 2001: 71).

57 From now on I shall refer to the film as Brilliantovaia ruka.

58 For more details see the online encyclopaedia of Russian and TV films, Nashe kino, at http://nashekino.ru [accessed 2^nd Dec 2010].