Proceso de adaptación

One final area of research on SL involves the relevant developmental processes that occur during participation. Although research examining this topic is limited, one group of researchers (e.g., Dworkin et al., 2003; Hansen, Larson, & Dworkin, 2003; Larson, Hansen, & Moneta, 2006) has attempted to address this deficit in the literature.

A qualitative study by Dworkin and colleagues (2003) focused on the growth experiences reported by youth participants in structured voluntary activities, and many themes emerged. Participants reported that the various activities helped them explore aspects of their identity, develop initiative (e.g., setting goals, managing time), interact with their peers, learn about their emotions, gain experience in working in a group, and develop social capital. An interesting aspect of the study is that some of the themes that emerged (e.g., learning to manage time, perseverance) could be seen as being more in line with work values as opposed to those associated with leisure.

In a follow-up study, Hansen and colleagues (2003) used a quantitative methodology to assess adolescents’ self-reported developmental experiences in organized youth activities. The authors had participants complete a survey regarding their participation in three primary contexts: organized youth activities, academic classroom activities, and socializing with friends. It was hypothesized that participants in organized youth activities would report higher rates of learning experiences than those participants who reported on the other two contexts. In general, it was found that

youth activities provided participants with more self-reported personal development experiences (e.g., identity exploration, development of initiative) and more experiences related to interpersonal development (e.g., teamwork and social skills) than the other two contexts. The study also examined self-reported negative experiences (e.g.,

negative peer and adult interactions, stress) in the three contexts, and found that students reported greater experiences of stress in academic classes in comparison to youth

activities and time spent with friends. More negative peer interactions were reported for spending time with friends in comparison to youth and classroom activities.

A second objective of the study was to compare self-reported experiences (both positive developmental and negative experiences) across five categories of youth activities: sports, faith-based and service activities, academic and leadership activities, performance and fine arts, and community organizations and vocational clubs (Hansen et al., 2003). The findings identified distinct profiles of developmental experiences for different categories of youth activities. Participants involved in faith-based and service activities and community and vocational activities were found to have similar patterns of developmental experiences. These activities were associated with high rates of experiences relating to the development of prosocial norms, identity, and ties to the community. Sports involvement was associated with frequent learning experiences related to self-knowledge, emotional regulation, and physical skills. Sports

involvement was also associated with higher rates of negative peer interactions and inappropriate adult behavior. Involvement in arts activities and academic and

leadership activities was generally not associated with higher levels of learning experiences than the other youth activities.

A more recent study by Larson and colleagues (2006) used a similar design as was used in the study by Hansen and colleagues (2003). As with the previous study, developmental and negative experiences occurring in relation to organized activities were compared with experiences occurring in three other major activities in youth’s lives: school classes, leisure with friends, and part-time employment. Relevant

experiences were also compared among categories of organized activities. The Larson and colleagues study extended the previous research by using a much larger sample of youth (n = 2280) and by collecting data via computer administration, allowing the researchers to systematically select and inventory two activities per participant. This data collection method not only allowed researchers to oversample/undersample activity contexts that are often unevenly distributed (e.g., sports activities versus community activities), but also enabled them to conduct within person comparisons, which greatly reduced confounds related to self-selection.

When developmental experiences associated with organized activities were compared to those of the other activity contexts, the most consistent finding was that each of the different organized activities was associated with higher levels of personal development (e.g., identity exploration, development of initiative) and interpersonal development (e.g., teamwork and social skills) in comparison to classroom activities (Larson et al., 2006). When different types of organized activities were compared with time spent with friends and part-time employment, results varied. For example, in

comparison to spending time with friends, the various types of organized activities did not differ consistently in terms of positive developmental experiences. These findings are in contrast to those of the previous study, and the authors note that the earlier findings may have been attributable to self-selection.

Interestingly, higher rates of negative influences (e.g., peer pressure) and peer dynamics (e.g., inappropriate comments or gestures) were identified by participants in their interactions with friends in comparison to their experiences in organized activities (Larson et al., 2006). Stress was another negative experience that was measured, and three of the six organized activities (i.e., academics, service, and faith-based activities) involved significantly lower levels of stress in comparison to classroom activities. The other three organized activities (i.e., sports, arts, and community activities) did not differ significantly from classroom activities in terms of the self-reported stress levels.

When the different types of organized activities were compared to the mean values of developmental experiences for all organized activities, faith-based activities had the most distinct profile (Larson et al., 2006). Students in these activities reported higher rates of experiences in terms of both personal and interpersonal developmental domains. They also reported lower levels of stress. Students involved in sports reported higher rates of personal development experiences (e.g., initiative, emotional regulation) but lower rates of interpersonal development experiences (e.g., identity work, developing an adult network). Higher rates of stress were also reported by sports participants.

These studies provide a welcome focus on the processes that occur during SL activities. The respective authors note that further work is needed in this area, and the present study makes such a contribution by focusing on how aspects of play and leisure may be related to the developmental implications of participation. It will also attempt to highlight potential negative aspects of SL participation through the inclusion of

internalizing variables such as anxiety and depression.