Proceso de emisión de bonos externos

SOUTH AFRICA

2.3.1 Literature review findings relating to the description of the food and beverage industry in South Africa

The food and beverage industry is multi-sectoral. The Food and Beverage Industry Global Report (2010:4) refers to the food and beverage industry as sectors comprising of farming, food production, distribution, retail and catering. The South African DoL (DoL 2013:5) suggests that the food and beverage sector comprises abbatoirs, sugar refinery and grain mills, malt manufacturers and whisky distilling establishments. According to LeBlanch and Barling (2005:42), the food and beverage industry includes agricultural production of raw material, food processing and distribution, production of fresh food and processed food as well as food and beverage value chains. In addition, a report by the Bureau of Labour Statistics (2008:4) states that products produced in the food and beverage industry include meat, dairy products, grain, fruit and vegetables, oilseeds, sugar, bakery products, confectionery products and animal foods.

One of the divisions of the food and beverage industry involves manufacturing. The Methodological Centre for Vocational Education and Training (2008:3), Notta and Vlachvei (2011:439), Schmit, Park, Henehan and Hall (2012:3) and the DoL (2013:6-7) agreed that establishments where vegetable and animal oils and fats are manufactured and where fruits and vegetables are processed and preserved are classified as the food manufacturing sector. In addition, the food manufacturing sector also comprises sectors such as meat and fish processing establishments, milling and animal feeds establishments, bakeries, dairy producers as well as confectioneries (Schmit et al 2012:3).

The literature review showed that the food manufacturing sector is characterised by industrial activities, such as processing and preserving of fish and fish products, the production, processing and preserving of meat and meat production (Notta & Vlachvei 2011:439). Occupations in the food manufacturing sector include packers, forklift drivers, transporters, machine operators and maintenance workers (Spellman & Bieber 2008:13). A report published by the European Agency for Safety and Health at Work

(2013:3) states that the food sector includes establishments such as the food retail sector, catering operations and food production establishments. Establishments where alcoholic drinks such as beer and wine, non-alcoholic beverages such as soft drinks are manufactured and where mineral water is bottled are classified as the beverage manufacturing sector (Notta & Vlachvei 2011:439). In addition, literature review findings revealed that the beverage manufacturing sector includes distilling, manufacturing of ethyl alcohol, wines, cider, non-distilled fermented drinks, beer, malt, soft drinks and mineral water manufacturers (Foley 2008:16).

The food and beverage industry also includes the sector involved in distribution. According to Kaipio and Leppanen (2005:18) and Foley (2008:12), the food and beverage distributing sector consists of retail warehouses, cash and carry stores and supermarkets. According to Foley (2008:16), the beverage distributing sector comprises drink retail establishments such as pubs and bars. A report published by the ILO (2011:3) states that the food and beverage distributing sector is characterised by industrial activities such as long working hours which often extend into the late night and early morning shifts and working over the weekend and over the holidays are common factors in this sector. The occupations in the food and beverage distributing sector include packers who are responsible for stocking shelves, checking groceries, preparing inventory as well as cashiers who run the register (Maseko 2008:9).

The food and beverage industry also includes a sector which is involved in services. According to Rogge and Becker (2008:2), the food and beverage service sector includes establishments such as fast food restaurants, restaurants in shops, stores and canteens. Davies and Konisky (2000:6) posit that the food service industry includes establishments that sell prepared foods, snacks, and beverages for on-premise or immediate off-premise consumption. A report by the Robert Wood Johnson Foundation (2008:3) states that the restaurant sector is characterised by workload that rises at peak hours and is dependent on customer behaviour. The occupations in the food and beverage service sector include restaurant waiting of tables, setting tables and packers (Tsai 2009:110).

2.3.2 Literature review findings relating to the demographic characteristics of employees in the food and beverage industry

2.3.2.1 Gender distribution of employees in the food and beverage industry The economically active population, which includes employees or the self-employed individuals in Ghana, India and South Africa, is predominantly made up of men than women (Actionaid 2012:24). On the contrary, a study conducted by Mhazo, Mvumi, Nyakudya and Nazare (2012:1608) found that the majority of workers in the food processing industry in Sub Saharan Africa are women. In addition, in a study to identify patterns and sources of work-related injuries among Pick-‘n-Pay employees in Gauteng province, it was found that Pick ‘n Pay stores in the Gauteng province of South Africa have predominantly female assistants and packers (Zungu & Maseko 2011:25).

The United States’ Government Accountability Office (GAO-05-96, 2005:15) reported that the largest proportion of workers in the meat and poultry industry comprises young male. In New Zealand most employees in the food and beverage industry are females (The New Zealand Tourism Research Institute 2007:4; Crawford, Hubbard, O’Neill & Guarino 2010:307). Similarly, according to Arfah and Pudjihardjo (2013:1), over half of the employees in the food and beverage industry in Makassa, Indonesia are women.

2.3.2.2 Age distribution of employees in the food and beverage industry

A survey conducted among meat and poultry workers in 2003 in the USA to describe the characteristics of workers and the conditions in which they work revealed that the largest proportion of workers comprised young males (GAO-05-96, 2005:15). The survey further revealed that the mean age of workers in the meat and poultry industry in the USA was 37 years and about 43% of all meat and poultry workers were under age of 35 (GAO-05-96, 2005:15). According to Kukanja (2013:102) and Viljoen, Kruger and Saayman (2014:37), the majority of workers in the fast food and catering industry are adults aged 21 years and older. Similarly, Schmitt and Jones (2013:3) affirm that the majority of workers in the fast food industry are adults aged 21 years and older.

2.3.2.3 Level of education

Majority of workers in the fast food industry are adults with a high school education (Schmitt & Jones 2013:3; Kukanja, 2013:102; Viljoen et al 2014:37). However, in Portugal workers in smaller enterprises are unskilled and newly hired workers learn about their jobs from older colleagues (Jacinto, Canoa & Guedes-Soares 2009:633).

2.3.2.4 Level of experience

Employees in catering and distribution had an average work experience of between 7 years (Kukanja 2013:102) and 10 years (Maseko 2008:49) respectively. A report by the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH) (2012:2) states that the food and beverage service sector has a majority of teenagers who are mostly first time employees. Workers with less experience are at the higher risk of work-related injuries (Culp, Brooks, Rupe & Zwerling 2008:15). According to the Government of Western Australia (2010:2), longer years of experience at work and being older contributes to a better understanding of health and safety instructions, thereby improving compliance as well as promoting a more positive health and safety culture at work. The Government of Western Australia (2010:2) further suggests that older employees’ skills and experience gained from many years of employment can assist with safety and health management because of their substantial knowledge and experience. It has also been shown that older employees bring many benefits to the workplace and are viewed as a more productive and resourceful population (Tishman, Van Looy & Bruyere 2012:4).