Proceso de Instalación de PfSense Básica

Broadly speaking, SFL is the Sydney school of thought. It is referred to as „the Australian school‟ in the United States of America and is found in the works of Halliday(1978,1985; Halliday & Martin, 1989 and Johns, 2002). SFL and its concept of genre was developed by Martin and Rothery (1980, 1981), drawing from Halliday‟s theory, and focuses on language form, function and context. Genre-based pedagogy in SFL is concerned with the relationship

43 between language and its functions in a social context, where grammar is seen as a resource for communication (Halliday & Martin, 1989).

A text is understood as functioning in a context operating at two levels: at the level of a register where social activity (field) and the interpersonal relationships is noted among people using the same language (tenor) and at the level of mode where the communication draws its own meaning through the choice of language use. Both levels (register and mode) influence the choices that are made in the linguistic system, as well as at the level of genre, where social purpose requires the linguistic choices.The basic components of meaning in SFL draws from the relationship between experiences (ideational=physical), social roles (interpersonal=social), and (textual=semiotic) and all these contribute to shaping the meaning of a text. The SFL model defines genres by linguistic features where spoken and written genres are seen as a finite set of linguistic processes such as narrative ( life history), and recount (e.g. letters, media, memos, and so on (Halliday, 1994).

The educational context of genres in SFL started with an „educational experiment‟ (Cope, Kalantzis, 1993; Kress & van Leeuwen, 2001). The goal of SFL genre is to help primary and secondary school students where most of them participate effectively in the school curriculum (Callagham, Knapp & Noble, 1993; Dudley-Evans, 2001). A narrative in SFL refers to a story which interprets some historical and cultural aspects of the world through a novel and includes problems which are to be solved by characters and the major events for the characters. Recount helps to reconstruct past experiences by retelling events in their original sequences, through the stage of recording, in order to bring past events into the present. SFL genres are purely general and grammar-oriented.

Genre in SFL emphasises language at the level of whole texts (Martin, 1993, Rose & Martin, 2005). As a result, it sees social purpose, language and context in the text as interrelated.

44 Therefore, the teaching of genres needs to move away from linguistic description to an explanation of why texts are shaped the way they are (Paltridge, 2004). Consequently, students need to be taught explicit genres and the dominant forms of writing valued in schools (Grabowski, 1996) and beyond (Macken-Horarik, 2002). Genr,e in language teaching, is a valuable concept and plays an important role. In the 1990s, genre developed to the next stage where it describes text structures that occur in specific social contexts and institutions (Christie and Martin, 1997). Genre theory has not been developed exclusively as an educational tool as stated by SFL on the insights it provides into language structure. SFL theorists, therefore, think of genre descriptions as staging and the linguistic levels drawn on to achieve a particular social goal, rather than as rule-governed structures (Halliday, 1985).

2.4.1.2 Genres in the New Rhetoric (NR)

Genre is defined by NR as “stabilized for now and forms of action which are open to change and subject to negotiation” (Collin, 2012:84; Schreyer, 1994). This latter scholar draws attention to the fact that the genres are provisional and represent social and ideological actions. The main claim here is that genres are sensitive to contestation and that there is always the possibility of play. Genre is also seen as a “distinctive category of discourses of any type, spoken or written, with or without literary aspirations” (Swales, 1990:13; Martin, 1993) and deals with text, context and ways in which individuals use language to create texts. The context of writing in NR “views genre as predominantly concerned with first language university students and novice professionals” (Hyon, 1996:698). The knowledge of genre helps students become more successful readers and writers of academic texts in which the writing purpose is on making students aware of the contexts and the social functions of the genres in which they engage (Bazerman, 1994).

45 Genre is also seen as complex, dynamic and not amenable to explicit teaching (Johns, 2002; Cope & Kalantzis, 1993). These proponents of genre theory argue that it is through the understanding of context that students can become more successful readers and writers of genres. NR values the contexts as well as the social nature of genres (Dias & Pare, 2000; Dias, Freedman, Medway, & Pare, 1999), given that language does not occur in a vacuum (Adams & Artemeva, 2002). Genres in NR function as a specific communicative language. The key focus is not linguistically-oriented like ESP and SFL, but draws its strengths from post-modern social literary theories (Johns, 2002), which does not only involve description of linguistic system and rhetorical patterns but also purports that genres are “embedded in the communicative activities of the members of a discipline” (Berkenkotter & Hucklin, 1995:2).

The main aim of the New Rhetoric (NR) studies, sometimes referred to as the North American school (due to geographical location of many of its theorists and researchers), is to stress the concept of genre which largely evolved in the 1980s within the fields of composition studies, rhetoric and professional writing. Compared to the SFL genre approach, the NR genre approach “places far less emphasis on textual features, rather focus is on the relationship between text and context” (Freedman and Medway, 1994:9). Being able to unpack these relationships provides “the keys to understanding how to participate in the actions of a community” (Miller, 1994:38-9). It is argued that “a rhetorically sound definition of genre must be centred not on the substance or form of discourse but on the action used by the discourse to accomplish it” (Miller, 1984:151).

The analytical tool within NR has been ethnographically, rather than linguistically, informed methods to the analysis of texts (e.g. Bazerman, 1998; Schryer, 1994). Ethnographic methods applied to the analysis of texts highlights academic and professional contexts of genre, its action and tasks performed (Hyon, 1996). In addition to ethnographic techniques, discourse analysis and cognitively based rhetorical analysis forms what is referred to as “a socio-

46 cognitive theory of genre” (Berkenkotter and Huckin, 1995: xi). In the NR approach, genre is seen as a form of social action which is not centred on the form and structure of the discourse as does ESP, but on the action the discourse is used to accomplish it. Here, genres evolve to meet the needs of communities. On the other hand and in a very distinctive way, NR‟s view of genre addresses the issue of genre that is built on the relationship between texts, context and audience. The NR focuses on persuasive texts and thus there is a close link with critical language studies.

In terms of scientific texts, Rwandan students need to be able to deal with persuasive texts in genres such as arguments, discussions, explanations, expositions, reports and procedures. Therefore, the genre school that seems to operate within the institution and is relevant to the study of EAP, is the NR, given that the major preoccupation of its genres is on disciplinary specificity, context and purpose; this is the core role of EAP. Academic genres are viewed differently from SFL and ESP/EAP (Martin, Christie & Rothery, 1987), emphasising that pedagogy has prioritised interactive practices over grammar-based practices simply because the former encourage interaction to facilitate negotiation.

I would like to use the following sub sections to address the concept of EAP at tertiary institutions.