Proceso de normalización

Generally, assessment is an essential component of an education system. It has a strong impact on teachers and pupils (Hughes, 2003). The purpose of testing is to pro- vide information about the achievement of learners without which rational educational decisions could not be made (Schellekens, 2007). Therefore, Williams (1998) believes English teachers should be trained to construct and mark students’ papers because as- sessing student papers is one of the most important things the teachers do, as their de- cisions about grades can affect students’ lives.

There are various types of English language tests. According to Hughes (2003), an achievement test is conducted at the end of the year. A proficiency test is designed to measure people’s ability in a language regardless of any training they may have had in that language. A placement test is used to place pupils at different levels of education. Finally, a diagnostic test is employed to know the weaknesses and strengths of the learners in a language. In Pakistan, all Board and University examinations are achievement tests which are not very helpful to understand the strengths and weak- nesses of students. There are some proficiency tests such as IELTS, TOEFL which Pakistani students need to qualify for admission in higher education in English speak- ing countries.

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4.4.1 Traditional tests versus performance based tests

Puppin (2007) argues that traditional tests like Board examinations are one-shot tests, based on textbooks, that give inauthentic and de-contextualised testing tasks, have subjective grading and correction and lead to negative wash back. On the other hand, performance based testing is continuous assessment, has contextualised test tasks and standardised scoring criteria (Davies, 1990). McNamara (1996) also believes that tra- ditional tests do not contribute to students’ learning in a positive way. Bailey (1998) suggests that in contrast to traditional tests, performance tests are designed with a spe- cial care to present real life tasks which test learners’ sociolinguistic ability and com- petence to ensure their progress in language. Linguists Alderson and North (1991) are in favour of communicative language testing because its goal is to assess an individ- ual’s originality and creative abilities. These tests employ authentic texts and are based on the learners’ needs and language use in context for the purposes relevant to the learner (Heaton, 1990; Brown, 1994). Brown, Race and Smith (1996) also empha- sise the use of creativity, reflection, observation and personal experiences in learners’ writing tests.

There are different qualities which can maximise the overall usefulness of an English language test (Bachman and Palmer (1996). A good test should have construct valid- ity, reliability, authenticity, interactiveness, impact and practicality to foster creativity and independent learning (Brown and Pickford, 2006). Bachman and Palmer (1996, p.19-26) define construct validity as ‘meaningfulness and interpretation of the scores to be achieved’, reliability is ‘the consistency of scores’, authenticity is ‘the degree of correspondence between a given test task and the target language use’, interactiveness is ‘the involvement of test taker’s characteristics’, impact means ‘the effect of the test on society, educational systems and upon the individual within those systems’ and practicality means ‘available resources’.

4.4.2 English language assessment in Pakistan

In Pakistan, the public examinations are often perceived as a source of dissatisfaction that do not reflect students’ actual potential or measure language proficiency (Khan, 2011, 2012). Siddiqui (2007, p.189) believes ‘in Pakistan assessment system ex- cludes creativity and critical thinking out of its legitimate boundaries’ because Eng-

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lish examinations test knowledge of literature and knowledge of language, rather than use of language. Siddiqui (2007, p.164) rightly says:

‘The students memorise the readymade answers of short stories, essays, plays, poems etc because assessment system encourages rote learning and the examination requires the students to reproduce what they have learnt by heart’.

Further, all examinations held in English in Pakistan have subjectivity in setting and marking and they cover only reading and writing skills and measure pupils’ knowl- edge of the language rather than their performance (Warsi, 2004). Thus, to quote, ‘we are caught in a vicious circle; the cycle begins at a badly constructed syllabi and ends at a rag bag system called examination’ (National Education Policy (1992, p.69). Na- tional Education Policy (2009, p.38) states, ‘the public examinations in Pakistan are invalid and unreliable as they encourage cramming’. In Pakistan, it is seen that, as- sessment has a direct relationship with teaching in the classroom. Siddiqui (2007, p.187) asserts:

‘In Pakistan the impact of assessment is conspicuous. It is the assessment system that has emerged as an omnipotent force that is calling the shots in the educational scenario of Pakistan. Each new government claims to real- ize its significance but hardly takes any practical, meaningful, holistic, and sustainable steps towards streamlining the system’.

Text books and assessment are interrelated concepts in the Pakistani education sys- tem. Mostly ‘teachers use only textbook questions to assess students’ learning and for assigning homework’ (Mehrun Nisa, 2009, p.26). These questions normally require reproduction of memorised material from the textbooks or guide books. Siddiqui (2007, p.152) comments, ‘the students prepare for the examination with the help of ‘Get through guides’ that provides them with a short cut to pass the examination’. The English language question papers are not devised in terms of specific purposes and intended learning outcomes. Since 1959, it is keenly felt that in Board and University examinations ‘success can be achieved through mere memorisation and practically no effort is made to test the pupils’ intelligence’ (Commission on National Education, 1959, p.125). It is also justly argued:

‘Twenty provincial boards in Pakistan encourage poor learning and teach- ing methods where rote learnt answers from prescribed textbooks or

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guidebooks are rewarded and creative and independent thinking penal- ized’(Mansoor, 2005, p.32).

The teachers’ attention is focussed on stereotyped questions set in the examination; therefore do not sufficiently practice reflective, critical and interactive faculties in classroom. Although it is realised that English language testing does not measure stu- dents’ ability to use the language, creativity and critical thinking, no significant efforts appear to be made to improve it.

4.4.3 Wash back effect of examinations

Hughes (2003) describes washback as an effect of testing on teaching and learning. Bachman and Palmer (1996, p.27) define washback to be ‘an aspect of impact on processes of learning and instruction.’ According to Hughes (2003) a test could have either beneficial or harmful washback. A test has beneficial washback if it is based on the language needs of the learners but if the test content and techniques are at variance with the objectives of the course, it is unreliable and likely to have harmful washback. The public examinations have negative washback effect in Pakistan.

‘The negative washback effect on teaching is of two kinds: explicit and implicit. In the Pakistani context, explicit effect is shown in the apparent tactics the teacher uses to help students get good grades. The implicit washback effect is the teacher’s own view of teaching which gets con- taminated by the hanging sword of memory-geared tests’ (Siddiqui, 2007, p.189).

Jenkins (2007, p.42) asserts, ‘learners and teachers are reluctant to embrace changes in curriculum as the focus is on targets set in the test’. Such type of testing under- mines the quality of instruction in the classroom (Hill, 2004). A significant reality of such examination is that, it does not take into account the needs of the learners ‘which are the development of basic skills in English so that they can apply for higher educa- tion and get a good job’ (Siddiqui, 2007, p.163).