Los procesos de venta de las Agencias de Viajes y Turismo.

To assess the impact of organic cotton farming on the resource base, the activity base and the socio-economic condition of farm households, we compared a representative sample33

of farms associated with Maikaal bioRe with a representative sample of conventional farms in the same villages. Data collection covered a period of two complete cropping seasons34_,

2003 (April 2003 to March 2004) and 2004 (April 2004 to March 2005). While rainfall in the previous year was about 30% below average, 2003 was a year with normal precipitation (in average 866 mm in the studied villages), and farming conditions were comparatively good. In 2004, precipitation was slightly less (769 mm) and the distribution was less favourable, with longer dry periods and some incidences of high rainfall that caused flood erosion and water logging in some fields, thus affecting yields. The rainfall measured in 2003 and 2004 in selected village clusters is given in Annex 1.3.

32 _{Inputs per kg of product output.}

33 _{The samples were randomly selected; for details on the sample selection see section 3.2.3.} 34 _{Covering two cropping seasons does not permit analysing the development over time but rather}

Field data were collected in collaboration with an Indian field research team consisting of two agronomists and three field research assistants who are familiar with the research region. The data collection covered three levels:

1. Farm profile data (collected in interviews at the beginning of each cropping period); 2. Agronomic performance data (continuously recorded throughout the cropping

period);

3. Field and soil data (measured at the beginning of each cropping period).

Farm profile data

At the beginning of the two cropping periods, we visited and interviewed each farmer to collect basic profile data of the farm. The interviews were based on questionnaires addressing the farm characteristics listed in Table 6.

Table 6: Farm characteristics that were enumerated in interviews at the beginning of each cropping period.

Farm characteristics Details

Social parameters Caste, education and age of the farmer, house type, family type, number of family members.

Land holding Own land, leased land.

Crop rotation pattern Area under main crops; crop rotation patterns.

Agricultural equipment Equipment for soil cultivation and transportation; equipment values.

Cattle Stocks of cows, bullocks, buffaloes, goats. Income (other than from crops) Annual milk sales, off-farm income.

Agricultural labour Family own labour (male, female), permanently hired labour. Irrigation systems Micro-irrigation systems, wells.

In collecting the farm profile data we applied the following definitions:

• In house types we distinguished between kaccha houses (mud-walls, thatched

roofs), pakka houses (stone or concrete walls, tiled or concrete roofs) and mixed

houses.

• In family types we distinguished between households that still consist of joint families – i.e. two or more closely related families living in the same household and operating the land jointly – and single families.

• In crop rotation patterns we enumerated the land shares under the main crops, and the previous crop grown in the cotton fields.

• Agricultural equipment included ploughs, cultivators, threshers, pump sprayers, motorbikes, bullock carts and tractor trolleys. Equipment values were calculated based on average costs, without considering depreciation.

• Under off-farm income we summarized all income that is gained from outside the own farm in an average year. This included income from businesses, services and working as hired labour for other farmers.

• We compared stocking rates of farm animals with regard to the availability of farmyard manure. For this, we made rough estimates on livestock units (LSU) as per expected dung droppings that are used as manure in the fields. Adult cows,

bullocks and buffaloes were calculated as 1 LSU, young cows and buffaloes up to 1 year as 0.5 LSU, adult goats as 0.4 LSU and young goats as 0.2 LSU. As the conditions of the animals as well as the efficiencies in using their dung as manure (part of it is used as fuel) vary to a great extent among the farms, it did not seem workable to make more sophisticated calculations of livestock units.

• To compare the labour availability on organic and conventional farms, we collected data on the agricultural labour units (LU) of family own labour and permanently hired labour involved in farming activities (all crops). If a person did not devote all his or her time for agricultural activities (e.g. housewives or children in education), the respective work share was taken into consideration. Based on estimates by farmers, persons below 18 years and above 60 years were counted as 0.5 LU, and children of 12 to 16 years working in the farm as 0.2 LU.

• Micro-irrigation systems included different drip systems and in few cases sprinklers.

Agronomic performance data

Data on the agronomic performance of cotton and the main rotation crops were collected based on farm records maintained by the farmers themselves. The research team instructed the selected farmers in keeping detailed records on material as well as monetary inputs and outputs and on farm-own and hired labour inputs with the help of record forms printed in Hindi. During the two cropping periods, the research team visited the farms in regular intervals, checked the entries and guided the farmers in maintaining records. In cotton cultivation, separate records were kept for each cotton field, while for the major rotation crops summarized farm data were recorded. The parameters covered in the record keeping are listed in Table 7. In recording the agronomic performance data we applied the following definitions:

• Wheat shares define the fraction of a cotton field that is uprooted at the end of the monsoon season (Kharif) and cultivated with wheat in the winter season (Rabi). • In labour inputs, we distinguished between male and female labour, and separately

enumerated labour inputs for fertilizer/manure application, pest management and weeding. An exploratory study on Maikaal bioRe had shown that there are no differences in labour input for intercultural operations, irrigation and harvesting between organic and conventional farms (Schumacher, 2004). Therefore, we did not separately enumerate labour inputs for these activities.

• As the seed density is basically the same in organic and conventional farming, only seed costs were taken into consideration, while seed quantities were not compared.

• We only investigated into the cost effect of organic and conventional pest management, not into the material inputs. As both systems use a wide range of agents, with different toxicity levels, it would be difficult to compare pesticide quantities.

• To calculate the average cotton price for a farm, we multiplied the quantity of each harvest lot that a farmer sold with the price received and divided the total value by the total quantity sold. Values of the other crops were calculated based on average market prices.35

Table 7: Parameters covered by the record keeping. Cotton field parameters Details

Cotton crop characteristics Sowing and final harvest date, variety, spacing. Crop rotation in cotton Previous crops, intercrop, wheat share.

Labour input Labour days: male/female, own/hired, days for weeding, fertilizer/manure application, pest management.

Material input Seeds, fertilizers/manures (urea, di-ammonia phosphate, NPK- fertilizer, super-phosphate, muriate of potash, farmyard manure, compost, vermin-compost, de-oiled castor, rock phosphate, sugarcane press mud); pest management items.

Irrigation Irrigation rounds, duration, pump details (well depth, diameter, power), use of micro-irrigation systems.

Production costs Labour costs (own/hired), costs for fertilizers/manures, costs for pest management items, other costs (renting equipment, repairs, electricity bills, fuel, irrigation cost); production costs in wheat crop.

Yields Seed cotton yields, wheat yields, intercrop yields. Cotton prices Rates at which individual cotton lots were sold. Crop values Market value of cotton, wheat and intercrop harvests. Crop condition Classification (1–5), description.

Rotation crop parameters Details

Crop characteristics Area covered by the crop (according to the farmer), sowing and final harvest date, variety, spacing.

Crop rotation Crop shares, intercrops. Labour input Labour days: own/hired.

Production costs Labour costs (own/hired), costs for fertilizers/manures, costs for pest management items, other costs (renting equipment, repairs, electricity bills, fuel, irrigation cost).

Yields Total yields of the main rotation crops.

Values Total crop value (home consumption at market rates)36_. Crop condition Description.

Field and soil data:

At the beginning of both cropping periods, the research team measured the size of every cotton field through triangulation, using measurement tapes. In order to analyse the influence of soil properties on the agronomic performance, and to assess the impact of organic management on soil fertility, representative soil samples were taken from each field for analysis (see section 3.2.4).

36 _{Maize, sorghum and wheat also yield straw that is used as fodder for cattle. Due to practical} reasons (measurability) straw yields and values were not assessed in this study.