Th e Ramah Navajo of North America smoked dried leaves to attract game (Vestal 1952).
Aster puniceus L. (Asteraceae). purplestem aster.
Th e Chippewa of North America smoked the fi ne tendrils of the roots of this spe- cies in a pipe with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) to attract game (Densmore 1974).
Aster umbellatus Mill. (Asteraceae). fl at topped white aster.
According to Smith (1928), the Meskwaki of Iowa inhaled the smoke produced by burning whole plants for reviving a fainting person (Smith 1928). Th e Potawatomi of Wisconsin used smoke smudges to ward off evil spirits from a sickroom (Smith 1933).
Astragalus fasciculifolius Boiss. (Fabaceae). Anzarut.
Th e gum of this species was burned to produce a fumigant considered useful for treating ear disorders (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Astrocaryum aculeatum G. Mey (Arecaceae). tucum palm.
Th e Xiriana (Yanomamo) of northern Brazil burned the epicarp to smoke-cure rubber (Corrêa 1926–1975).
Astronium urundeuva Engl. (Anacardiaceae). urunday.
Th e Izoceño-Guaraní of Bolivia inhaled smoke from the bark of this species to stop hemorrhaging of the nose (Bourdy et al. 2004). A decoction of the bark was prepared into a jellylike substance, which was then placed over burning charcoal to produce the smoke.
Atamisquea emarginata Miers (Capparaceae). palo zorrillo.
Th e Seri of Mexico burned the wood of the palo zorrillo during many of their ceremonies, which they called hamcáatxi. Th e smoke was used to cure fussy
Figure 16. Like the New England
aster (Aster novae-angliae), many species of Aster were smoked by Native North Americans to attract game.
52 Atractylis gummifera L.
babies and to cure a turtle hunter’s harpoon (Felger and Moser 1985). A female sponsor, called a hamác, passed the harpoon through the smoke during the pro- cess.
Atractylis gummifera L. (Asteraceae). pine thistle.
Known in Morocco as addad, this species was one ingredient in a polyherbal rec- ipe used in Morocco to induce abortions in women (Merzouki et al. 2000). A mid- wife directed the smoke into the vagina of women who were seeking abortions. Th e other ingredients were Cannabis sativa L., Conium maculatum L., Datura
stramonium L., Ecballium elaterium (L.) A. Rich., and Withania somnifera (L.)
Dunal. Many of the species listed here are poisonous and should never be used by untrained individuals. Th e pine thistle has also been reported to have insecticidal properties (Jacobson 1958).
Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt. (Chenopodiaceae). four-wing saltbush.
Th e Jemez of New Mexico threw leaves on fi res to generate smoke that was used to revive a badly hurt or faint person (Cook 1930).
Atriplex obovata Moq. (Chenopodiaceae). mound saltbush.
Th e entire plant was smoked to treat epilepsy by the Hopi of northeastern Arizona (Colton 1974).
Atriplex sp. (Chenopodiaceae). saltbush.
Th e Cahuilla of southern California smoked dried leaves to relieve head colds (Bean and Saubel 1972).
Atropa acuminata Royle ex Lindl. (Solanaceae). Indian belladonna.
Th e leaves of this species were smoked in India for their analgesic properties (Kapoor 2001).
Atropa baetica Wilk. (Solanaceae). tabba.
Th e leaf bracts of this species were used in the preparation of a traditional pipe in Morocco, called kif, that was smoked for its narcotic eff ects (Merzouki et al. 2000).
Atropa belladonna L. (Solanaceae). deadly nightshade.
In parts of Ukraine, the leaves of belladonna were mixed with those of jim- sonweed (Datura stramonium L.) and those of black henbane (Hyoscyamus
niger L.) and were smoked for the relief of asthma (Kondratyuk et al. 1967).
These are all highly poisonous plants and should never be used by untrained individuals.
Atropa mandragora L. (Solanaceae). mandrake.
Th is species was one of the many whose use was implicated in inducing psychic visions in the Delphic oracle, or Pythia, of ancient Greece (Stefanis et al. 1975). Th e plant may have been burned below the Pythia’s prophetic chamber (manteion) and vented up through the small hole in the famous omphalos stone on which the Pythia’s tripod stool was fastened.
Atylosia lineata Wight. & Arn. (Fabacaeae). rantur.
Th e dried leaves of rantur were smoked in pipes in western Maharashta State, India, for the relief of asthma (Tosh 1996).
Austrobrickellia patens (Don. ex Hook and Harm) R. M. King & H. Rob.
(Asteraceae). chorochikea.
Th e whole plant was burned over charcoal by the Izoceño-Guaraní of Bolivia. Th e smoke from the plant was believed to reduce fevers (Bourdy et al. 2004).
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. 53
Avena sativa L. (Poaceae). oat.
Th e seeds were burned for fumigants that were used in Hungary to keep insects away from houses and animals (Vajkai 1943).
Avicennia germinans (L.) Stearn (Verbenaceae). black mangrove.
According to the Darien of Panama, the wood of this species makes an eff ective smoke smudge that repels mosquitoes (Duke 1968).
Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. (Verbenaceae). gray mangrove.
Th e leaves of this mangrove are considered useful for repelling or killing Culex
quinquefasciatus mosquitoes according to Th angam and Kathiresan (1992). Th e country of use was not specifi ed.
Avicennia nitida Jacq. (Verbenaceae). white mangrove.
Asita and Campbell (1990) reported that the wood of the white mangrove could be burned to produce smoke that eff ectively inhibited three species of bacteria—
Staphylococcus aureus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Eschirichia coli—all of which
are known to spoil food. It also may have been used to drive away mosquitoes.
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Meliaceae). neem.
The binomial botanical name of neem literally means “bitter tree from India.” The vernacular name, neem, is from the Sanskrit word nimba, meaning “sprin- kling of nectar and ambrosia” (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). Neem is used for a variety of purposes, many of which were recognized by the Indians and Chinese as early as 4,000 years ago. This species produces several active com- pounds, of which the tetranotriterpenoid, azadirachtin, is an active insecticide. In Ghana and Gambia, the leaves of the neem tree were burned to produce smoke that repels mosquitoes (Aikins et al. 1994). This was true of other parts of East Africa, especially where the Bantu language of Swahili was spo- ken (Heine and Legére 1995). Smoke from burning leaves was also used in the rural villages of the Oio region of Guinea-Bissau, in West Africa, to drive mosquitoes away (Pålsson and Jaenson 1999b). According to Medvei (1993), Hindus may have used vaginal fumigations of neem trees as contraceptives. Along with 16 other plant species, this species was listed in the ancient San- skrit treatise the Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya (fourth century b.c.) as an ingredient in a deadly concoction that, when burned, produced smoke that was lethal to animals (Sensarma 1998). The other plants include Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. in Engl. & Prantl, Careya arborea Roxb., Ferula assa-foetida L., Gossy-
pium herbaceum L., Holarrhena antidysnterica L., Hordeum vulgare L., Lufta echinata Roxb., Moringa oleifera Lam., Ocimum sp., the broken grains of Oryza sativa L., Paspalum scrobiculatum., Populus euphratica Oliv., Ricinus communis
L., Salvadora indica Royle., and Xeromphis spinosa (Thunb.) Keay.
Baeckea frutescens L. (Myrtaceae). Baeckea.
Smoke from burning dried plants was inhaled to treat violent colic in Southeast Asia (Pételot 1953; van Duong 1993). Patients usually reclined on a lattice bed under which the plant was burned. Th ey inhaled the smoke as it passed over them.
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. (Balanitaceae). desert date.
In Chad, Africa, the whole plant was burned and used as a fumigant for liver problems (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Th e Borana of Ethiopia fumi- gated their milk containers with smoke from the burning of this plant (Heine and Brenzinger 1988). Th e Ethiopian name for the species is báddan. In Ghana,
54 Balanites gillettii Cufod.
smoke from burning bark was used to heal circumcision wounds (Dalziel 1948; Irvine 1961).
Balanites gillettii Cufod. (Balanitaceae). kuze.
Th e Samburu of Kenya fumigated and cleansed their gourds and containers with the smoke of burning wood (Heine and König 1988a).
Balanites orbicularis Sprague. (Balanitaceae). Balanites.
In Kenya, the Turkana (Morgan 1981) and Samburu (Heine and König 1988a) used the smoke of burning fruits to preserve their gourds. Th e Turkana also used the smoke to give fl avor to their milk (Morgan 1980).
Balanites rotundifolia (Tiegh.) Blatter. (Balanitaceae). hankalta.
Th e Samburu of Kenya used the wood to fumigate and cleanse their gourds and containers (Heine and König 1988a).
Balanites welwitschii (Tiegh.) Exell & Mendonça (Balanitaceae). omumbamenye.
Th e Himba of Namibia burned the dried roots of this plant on glowing embers and used the smoke as a fumigant to treat breast complaints in nursing mothers (von Koenen 2001). Omumbamenye is the Himban name for the species.
Balsamodendron myrrha T. Nees (Burseraceae). murr.
According to Avicenna, smoke from burning murr resin was an external fumigant in Iran for general diseases of the skin (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Balsamorhiza sagittata (Pursh) Nutt. (Asteraceae). balsam root.
Th e Crow of North America used balsam root as incense during feather headpiece transfer ceremonies (Hellson 1974). Th e smoke was also used to disinfect sick- rooms or was inhaled for general body aches (Foster and Hobbs 2002).
Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. (Poaceae). common bamboo.
Common bamboo stems were burned in Guyana to generate fumes that were con- sidered useful for repelling mosquitoes (Defi llips et al. 2004).
Banksia dentata L. f. (Proteaceae). tropical banksia.
Native Australians on the northern Australian island of Groote Eylandt burned the cones of this species in a pit and then squatted over the smoke so that it passed in and around their anus. Th is was said to relieve diarrhea (Levitt 1981). Th ey call the plant enindurrkwa.
Barleria waggana Rendle (Acanthaceae). Qodox tol.
Fresh aerial parts of this and other species of Barleria were burned in Somalia, with the smoke being inhaled as a treatment for chicken pox (Samuelsson et al. 1991).
Bauhinia fassoglenis Kotschy (Fabaceae). Mutama.
Smoke from burning roots was used in parts of South Africa to treat general gyne- cological disorders (Arnold and Giulumian 1984).
Bauhinia sp. (Fabaceae). Bauhinia.
In the Riau Province of Sumatra, Indonesia, the dried leaves of an unspecifi ed species of Bauhinia, known locally as katuk katuk, were crushed, rolled into a cigarette, and smoked to treat polyps in the nasal tract (Grosvenor et al. 1995).
Becium grandifl orum (Lam.) Pic. Serm. (Lamiaceae). tebub.
In parts of Zimbabwe, the leaves of tebub were smoked for the relief of chest and abdominal pain (Gelfand et al. 1985).
Berchemia discolor Hemsl. (Rhamnaceae). wild almond.
Th is species was used to treat menorrhagia in Venda, South Africa. Aff ected women exposed their vulva to the smoke of burning roots (Arnold and Gulumian 1984).
Blumea balsamifera DC. 55
Berlandiera lyrata Benth. (Asteraceae). lyreleaf greeneyes.
Aft er the dried roots were burned, they were ground up. Th e powder was then thrown on hot coals. Th e smoke was inhaled to give one courage and relieve ner- vousness (Swank 1932).
Betula nana L. (Betulaceae). dwarf birch.
Th e Alaskan natives of Nelson Island, off the west coast of Alaska, burned the entire shrub to smoke their fi sh (Ager and Ager 1980).
Betula papyrifera Marsh. (Betulaceae). paper birch.
Th e Dena’ina of Alaska used the wood to smoke their fi sh (Kari 1995). Dried rotten wood was used to smoke hides by the Woodland Cree of east-central Saskatchewan, Canada (Leighton 1985). Various other Native Americans chopped new soft wood and mixed it with their tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) (Krochmal and Krochmal 1973).
Betula pumila L. var. glandulifera Regel. (Betulaceae). dog birch.
Th e Pillager Obijwa of North America inhaled the smoke of burning cones (on hot coals) to treat catarrh (Smith 1932).
Betula utilis D. Don. (Betulaceae). Himalayan birch.
Th e papery bark of this birch tree was burned in India (Singh, G. S. 2000) and Nepal for incense and religious purposes (Manandhar 2002).
Bidens palustris Sherff. (Asteraceae). waata.
Th e Borana of Ethiopia burned this species as incense (Heine and Brenzinger 1988). Waata is the Borana name.
Bidens sp. (Asteraceae). beggarticks.
Th e Borana of Ethiopia burned an unspecifi ed species of Bidens as incense (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Bidens pilosa L. (Asteraceae). hairy beggarticks.
In parts of western Uganda, the leaves, seeds, roots, and fruits of this species were smoked in a pipe to help induce labor during childbirth (Kamatenesi-Mugisha and Oryem-Origa, 2006).
Bidens sp. (Asteraceae). beggarticks.
Th e Borana of Ethiopia burned an unspecifi ed species of Bidens as incense (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Bidens tripartita L. (Asteraceae). water agrimony.
Th e fl ower heads, when burned, give off a pleasant aromatic smoke that was used in parts of Europe to repel insects (Cribb and Cribb 1981).
Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. (Oxaladaceae). life plant.
In India, the Ratan Mahal Gujarat smoked the leaves (with unspecifi ed Nicotiana spp.) to render a man infertile (Bedi 1978).
Blepharis sp. (Acanthaceae). ubuhlungu besigcawa.
Th e Sukuma tribe of Tanzania (formerly Tanganyika) in East Africa burned an unspecifi ed Blepharis plant and then inhaled its smoke to treat smallpox and infected legs (von Reis and Lipp 1982).
Blumea balsamifera DC. (Asteraceae). nagi camphor.
Natives of Indo-China believed that the smoke produced by burning the leaves of B. balsamifera was ideal for restoring normal breathing in humans (Kariyone and Kimura 1949). In Malaysia’s Kelantan State, where it is known as sembong, the roots were smoked for nose sores (Ong and Nordi- ana 1999).
56 Blumea balsamifera DC. var. balsamifera
Blumea balsamifera DC. var. balsamifera (Asteraceae). sambong.
In the Cordillera region of the Philippines (northern Luzon), the leaves of this plant were burned on hot coals to generate smoke that was inhaled for the relief of asthma (Co 1989). Th e leaves were sometimes mixed with those of Euphorbia
hirta L.
Boerhavia coccinea Mill. (Nyctaginaceae). hogweed.
In parts of Tanzania, the leaves of hogweed were ground with oil and were then burned to produce smoke that was inhaled to treat toothache (von Reis and Lipp 1982).
Boscia angustifolia A. Rich. (Capparaceae). sehel.
Known in the Gourma District of Mali, Africa, as ajardahan and danarehi, the bark of this species was burned to fumigate the heads of those suff ering from headaches (Diallo et al. 1999).
Boscia angustifolia A. Rich. var. angustifolia (Capparaceae). likwon.
Th e Pokot of northern Kenya used the smoke from burning bark as a fumigant to treat sick cows (Timberlake 1987). Th e Borana of Ethiopia and the Gabbra of Kenya used it to fumigate and cleanse their gourds (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Boscia coriacea Paz (Capparaceae). kupungur.
In Kenya, the Turkana (Morgan 1981), Rendille (Heine and Heine 1988b), and Samburu (Heine and König 1988a) all used the smoke produced by burning this species to preserve gourds. Th e Turkana also used the smoke to fumigate leather containers, especially those in which they stored ghee (clarifi ed butter) (Morgan 1980). Th ey refer to this plant as erdung.
Boscia minimifolia Chiov. (Capparaceae). Boscia.
Th e Borana of Ethiopia and the Gabbra of Kenya burned this plant to fumigate and cleanse their gourds (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Boscia senegalensis Lam. (Capparaceae). Senegal boscia.
Th e wood of this species, when burned as fuel, produces obnoxious smoke (Wickens 2004).
Boswellia ameero Balf. f. (Burseraceae). frankincense plant.
Th e oleo-gum resins of this species were harvested by the people of the island of Socotra, located approximately 547 km (340 miles) southeast of Yemen, and were burned for incense purposes according to Huwes (1950).
Boswellia bhau-dajiana Birdw. (Burseraceae). mohr-add.
Th e oleo-gum resin of mohr-add was burned as incense in parts of northeastern Africa (Huwes 1950) and has oft en traded as as frankincense.
Boswellia carteri Birdw. (Burseraceae). olibanum tree (fi gure 17).
Th e oleo-gum resins produced by this species, called frankincense or olibanum, were highly prized throughout the Mediterranean (Huwes 1950), Somaliland, and other parts of the Middle East, including Iran and Iraq (Hooper and Field 1937), for burning as incense (Usher 1974). It has been sold for this purpose in the mar- kets of Jima, Ethiopia, where it is known as k’eyi it’an (Siegenthaler 1971). Th e Jima markets were, at one stage, a principal source of frankincense (Tucker 1986).
Boswellia dalzielii Hutch. (Burseraceae). frankincense tree.
In parts of West Africa, the smoke of burning resin was used to fumigate and per- fume clothes (Huwes 1949).
Boswellia papyrifera Hochst. 57
Boswellia frereana Birdw. (Burseraceae).
African elemi.
Th is species’ oleo-gum resins were used throughout the Mediterranean (Huwes 1950) and in tropical Africa for incense purposes (Usher 1974).
Boswellia glabra Roxb. (Burseraceae). Kundur.
Gum resin was burned to produce smoke that was used to fumigate the skin for general dermatological diseases according to Avicenna (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Boswellia hildebrandtii Engl. (Burseraceae). elemi
frankincense.
Th e Pokot of northern Kenya burned the resin on their fi res because the aromatic smoke it produced repelled insects (Timberlake 1987). Th e local name for this spe- cies is songoluwo. Th e Rendille of the Marsabit District of northern Kenya considered the dead wood from
this species good incense material and therefore burned it during certain ceremo- nies as well as in their houses (Heine and Heine 1988b). Th is was also a common practice of the Turkana of northern Kenya, who called this plant ekinyate (Morgan 1980).
Boswellia microphylla Chiov. (Burseraceae). frankincense tree.
In parts of Nigeria, the resin collected from the bark of this species was burned specifi cally to fumigate rooms and clothes and was oft en exported as frankincense (Oliver 1960).
Boswellia neglecta S. Moore. (Burseraceae). dakkara.
This species generated income for the farmers of rural households in Liban, Ethiopia, where the oleo-gum resins were burned for incense purposes, per- fumery, food and beverage flavoring, and traditional medicine (Lemenih et al. 2003).
Boswellia ogadensis Voll. (Burseraceae). gended.
Th is species generated income for farmers in the rural households of Liban, Ethiopia. Th e oleo-gum resins were burned for incense purposes (frankincense), perfumery, food and beverage fl avoring, and traditional medicine (Lemenih et al. 2003).
Boswellia papyrifera Hochst. (Burseraceae). elephant tree.
The highlanders of Ethiopia harvested the olibanum resin from the bark of this species and burned it to produce smoke, which was inhaled to control fever. It was also reputed to have a tranquilizer effect (Wilson and Mariam 1979). Some Ethiopians burned it at night to ward off evil spirits (Getahun 1976). It was used in East Africa (Usher 1974) and in northeastern Africa (Huwes 1950), where it was considered useful for burning as incense. A combination of factors, including overgrazing, poor harvesting practices, and insect infes- tations, are threatening populations of this species and may now require the implementation of urgent conservation practices to save the plant (Gebrehiwot et al. 2003).
Figure 17. Boswellia carteri. © 1995–
58 Boswellia sacra Flueck
Boswellia sacra Flueck. (Burseraceae). frankincense.
In parts of Oman, the smoke generated during the burning of oleo-gum resins harvested from this species was used to perfume clothes, hair, and houses (Ghazanfar 1994). Th is species was considered the major source of Arabian frankincense during classical times (Tucker 1986).
Boswellia serrata Roxb. (Burseraceae). Indian
frankincense.
Th e oleo-gum resins of this species were harvested and burned as incense in the dry hilly areas of northern India (Huwes 1950; Usher 1974). In the Rajasthan State of India, smoke from burning resin was burned during magico- religious ceremonies that were meant to hasten the recov- ery of sick people (Singh and Pandey 1998). As part of the ceremony, the smoke was off ered to gods and goddesses in
the hope that they would drive away bad infl uences. In the Gwalior Forest division of Madhya Pradesh, India, the bark was smoked through a special censer, called
chilam, to relieve gastric pain and to pass air (Anis et al. 2000). Dhiman (2003)
reported that this species was considered sacred throughout India and was burned in houses as incense, especially during religious ceremonies.
Boswellia socotrana Balf. f. (Burseraceae). Socotran incense.
Th is was another of the species used on the Island of Socotra for its resin. It was considered ideal for burning as incense (Uphof 1968).
Boswellia spp. (Burseraceae). Boswellia.
Several species of Boswellia were burned in saunalike chambers by Borana women in southern Oromia, Ethiopia. Th e smoke was used to perfume and cleanse their bodies and clothes (Gemedo-Dalle et al. 2005). For more information on this prac- tice, see Acacia goetzei Harms.
Brassica integrifolia (H. West) O. E. Schulz. (Brassicaceae). mustard.
In parts of Africa, sun-dried leaves of this plant were smoked like cannabis (Jayaweera 1980).
Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. (Brassicaceae). Indian mustard.
In India’s Indus Valley (Ladakh region), the seeds were mixed with red peppers and placed on hot coals. Th e resulting smoke was thought to ward off the evil eye and other spirits from children and cattle (Singh et al. 1996).
Brassica rugosa Prain (Brassicaceae). cabbage-leaf mustard.
Th e Kumaon of India burned the seeds of this species with capsicum to produce smoke that was used to induce lactation in domestic animals that failed to lactate naturally (Shah and Joshi 1971).
Breynia vitis-idaea (Burm. f.) C. E. C. Fisch. (Euphorbiaceae). kattuniruri.
When the people of Rayalaseema in Andhra Pradesh, India, suffered from sore throats, they would burn the leaves of this species under a blanket, where they also sat, and inhaled the smoke through their mouth (Nagaraju and Rau 1990).
Bridelia cathartica Bertol. f. (Euphorbiaceae). knobbly blue sweetberry.
Th is species was used in Zimbabwe, where smoke from burning roots was inhaled to treat epilepsy (Gelfand et al. 1985). Women villagers in Lumbwa in Tanzania’s
Bursera graveolens Triana & Planch. 59
Tanga District inhaled smoke of the burning wood to help with menstruation (Watt and Breyer-Brandwicjk 1962).
Bridelia scleroneura Müll. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae). Musasila.
Men of Bulamogi County, Uganda, smoked the leaves of this plant when they