Classroom observations are a very common means o f gathering data in qualitative studies, and Tan's (2007, p. 87) study 'examining classroom questioning behaviour and its impacts on students' development' is a good example. Tan observed nine university English classes, videotaping six of them. Nine teachers were involved in the research. Tan used a checklist built around question initiation during the observations. Although I
myself considered such an approach, Tan's observations were targeted far more specifically than my own.
Chen (2006, p. 5) used what he termed 'extensive classroom observations' in his study of partial English immersion programs in Taiwan. Chen clearly utilised a grounded theory; as he explains 'important themes and issues emerged' although he admits to beginning 'with some general and important aspects in mind' (p. 5). My own research also began with important aspects such as students' involvement with the textbook, and the grounded approach I used allowed issues to emerge. The literature consulted on classroom observations including ten Have (2004); Delamont (2004) and Perakyla (2004).
The principal theme o f my research is Taiwanese students' reactions to and interpretations o f textbooks, and the classroom is the only environment where I could observe such student behaviour and interaction first-hand. This method was crucial in answering Research Questions 1,1.1,1 .2, 2.1 and 3. Students cannot be asked how they react because the need to save or give face and to say what they feel the researcher wants to hear may affect the responses; their natural behaviour must be observed, and the observations were conducted in order to analyse how students reacted to the textbook being used in the classroom environment. This gave me considerable opportunity to determine whether the textbooks inhibit or augment the students' ability to understand the culture in Britain, thus attempting to answer Research Question 1. In addition, it allowed me to determine if there are factors other than the textbooks in the classroom environment that affect the students' cultural learning; thus finding possible answers to Research Questions 2.1 and 3.
When attempting to formulate a framework fo r my observations, I initially designed a basic observation template to record students' views and reactions to textbooks in the
classroom based on anticipated classroom behaviour. However the observation conducted in the Initial Study proved this approach to be unfeasible due to difficulties in writing notes under pre-set headings, and the possibility o f bias. In other words, predicting students7 behaviour would not allow me to gather data in an objective manner, in addition to creating a situation where such data was no longer grounded. Themes would not emerge if I took a pre-arranged framework into the classroom with me. I had considered the possibility that reactions to the textbook and consequent classroom behaviour may vary according to different classroom activities; fo r example, discussion, conversation or writing; but I saw no evidence to support this and I did not pursue this line of enquiry. The following tables, 3.4 and 3.5, give details of the classroom observations for both Data Collection Phases.
Table 3.4
Classroom Observations: Data Collection Phase 1 Class Level Number of
Students in Class Number of Taiwanese Students in Class 1 Intermediate 9 1 2 Intermediate 15 2 3 Upper- Intermediate 14 1 Table 3.5
Classroom Observations: Data Collection Phase 2
Class Level Number of students in Class Number o f Taiwanese Students in Class 1 Intermediate 9 1 2 Intermediate 15 2 3 Upper Intermediate 14 1 4 Intermediate 7 1 5 Intermediate 6 1 6 Pre-Intermediate 8 2 7 Intermediate 7 0 101
I gathered the information by means o f audio recordings using a Sony mp3 recorder, combined with field-notes. The idea o f using a recorder was based on the difficulty I had relying on field-notes alone in the Initial Study. In addition, the recorder proved to be quite an unobtrusive piece of equipment that could be used in the classroom virtually unnoticed. Although students had been informed that I was using a recorder, it was apparently quickly forgotten. The field-notes provided a back up fo r the audio recordings, and allowed me to differentiate between students' voices - which can be extremely difficult when relying on audio alone - and allowed me to record physical actions as well as verbal behaviours.
At the beginning of each classroom observation, I began by making notes about the textbook used unless I had been able to do this earlier - which was rare. Then the teacher explained who I was and what I was doing in the class. In some cases, I did this myself. In all cases, I then went through ethical issues with the students - see Ethical Considerations at the end of this chapter. During the classes I made notes and observed how students reacted to the textbooks. In recording this information I decided to look fo r any reaction from Taiwanese students that differed from the reactions of their multinational classmates. Additionally, I recorded any patterns in students' behaviour that may have a cultural source. For example, I noticed silences that might indicate a coping strategy when faced with a potentially face-losing situation. At the completion o f the classes, I thanked the teacher and the students before making arrangements to do the follow up small- group interviews.
Data Analysis
The data was analysed by listening to the recordings, and using the field-notes as support. Due to the noise level in most o f the classes it was often difficult to identify individual
speakers and notes taken in the field diary proved to be very useful at this time. When listening to the recordings I established themes and patterns that occurred among the students, particularly in relation to the textbooks. While listening to the recordings and referring to the field-notes, transcripts were produced which were then coded according to themes and consistencies that had appeared in the questionnaire. The reliability and consistency of the coding system was checked by constant comparison with data gained in all 11 observed classes - see Appendix G fo r samples of the coding system. During the process o f deriving concepts from the raw data, additional issues raised in the Literature Review that might influence the research findings were analysed fo r their applicability to this study.