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According to Gardner (1985), attitude is the evaluation of, or reaction to, some referent in the world, or an attitude object based upon the individual perceptions or beliefs of the nature of this referent. Baker (1992:10) views attitude as “a hypothetical construct used to explain the direction and persistence of human behaviour” that touches the reality of the language itself (Baker, 1988). That is to say, thoughts, feelings, and tendencies in behaviour can be represented in attitudes.

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Baker (1988:112-115) presents certain characteristics of attitudes that can show how and to what extent such constructs are complex. He argues that attitudes are not inherited, they are learned predispositions, and are likely to be relatively stable. Although they include a tendency to persist, they are affected by experience hence can be changed. Baker’s (ibid.) point is further argued regarding language by some other scholars, such as Giles and Powesland (1975), Ryan and Giles (1982), and Trudgill (1983). They mention that language attitudes are rarely static, arguing that personal introspection experience or exposure to social influence may lead to a change in attitudes. In addition, Baker (1988) states that attitude is individual, but it also has origins in collective

behaviour. He elaborates that both positive and negative feelings may be attached to a language situation, and they vary from favourability to ‘unfavourability’.

2.6.1 Language Attitudes

The complexity of the attitude construct as presented above may stand as the main factor that urges Baker (ibid.) to assert its value when discussing bilingualism. Furthermore, he views adopted or learned attitudes as an important agent, from which the status and significance of language in society and within an individual mainly derive. It is, therefore, responsible for the growth or decay, restoration or destruction of a language.

It is indisputable that in any language there are certain types of speech which are more prestigious and pleasant than other varieties of that language, hence achieving

superiority of these varieties (Giles et al. 1974a). Giles et al. (1974b), cited in Giles et al. (1974a), outline two possible answers to why some varieties are considered inferior to a prestigious form of a language, which are: the ‘inherent value’ and ‘imposed norm’ hypotheses. The former, ‘inherent value’, is closely related to the theory of ‘deficit’ position of speech usage, considering that non-standard varieties are sub-standards of a

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prestigious variety. According to this theory, the prestigious standard is “the most aesthetically pleasing and linguistically the most sophisticated form of that language” (ibid., p.406). On the other hand, the ‘imposed norm’ theory indicates that judgments about certain languages are not inherited, but are rather based upon adopted cultural norms about a language being pleasant or unpleasant (ibid., p.406).

Learning a language is closely related to the attitudes toward the language (Starks and Paltridge, 1996:218). Csizér and Dornyei (2005) and Gardner and Lambert (1972) discuss that the beliefs the language learners hold should be considered as a case in point in second language acquisition. Similarly, Bernat and Gvozdenko (2005) discuss that attitudes have an important place in the pedagogical implications and new directions in language learning beliefs, including, cognitive, contextual, social, cultural, affective, and personal factors. Richards et al. (1992:199) define language attitudes as:

The attitude that speakers of different languages or language varieties have towards each others’ languages or to their own language. Expressions of positive or negative feelings towards a language may reflect impressions of linguistic difficulty or simplicity, ease or difficulty of learning, degree of importance, elegance, social status, etc. Attitudes towards a language may also show what people feel about the speakers of that language.

Commentating on the last sentence from Richards’ et al. definition, the conception that links attitudes towards a language, or its varieties, with attitudes toward its speakers has constantly recurred in the literature, apparently by believers in the ‘imposed norm’ theory. That is, the attitude construct should not be restricted to only the language itself, but to encompass attitudes toward the speakers of that language (Fasold, 1984). As Fasold puts it, the concept of language attitudes includes the stance towards speakers of a particular language, and a variety of behaviour concerning language (p.148). He views attitudes towards a language as a reflection of attitudes towards members of various ethnic groups. Thus, the term can allow all kinds of behaviour concerning language to

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be treated by applied linguistics today. In other words, the reactions of individuals to language varieties reveal their perception of these varieties’ speakers (Edwards, 1982: 20).

According to Ammon (2000), some components shape a status of any language. These components mainly include issues related to speakers of any particular language; e.g. their number, social class, wealth…etc. In fact, Edwards (1982) refers to social status and group solidarity as two prominent variables that can determine views about

languages. In view of this, he elaborates that the power of the group or their social status can be reflected through their language being a standard or non-standard

language/variety. There is also what he calls in-group solidarity that can constitute a social pressure to preserve the language or any of its varieties.

Also reflected in Richards’ et al. (1992) definition above is the point Gardner (1985:40) emphasises, which calls attention to the concepts of attitudes being investigated.

Gardner propounds that attitudes can refer to educationally relevant factors such as the teacher or the language itself, or to socially relevant factors, such as the community of that language’s speakers. In other words, attitudes “can refer to more general attitudinal dispositions such as ethnocentrism, authoritarianism, or anomie dissatisfaction with one’s role in society” (ibid.).

Sifakis (2004) states that learners’ attitudes are paramount and the first to be

investigated in research with concerns of issues of English varieties, ownership, and its status in international/intercultural communication. Likewise, Friedrich (2000: 216) reinforces studying attitudes as an essential part of a WEs approach to language use. In fact, exploring the attitudes of learners toward different varieties of English has been

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conducted through a whole breadth of studies, due to the global spread of English and the wide recognition of WEs (Yang, 2010). Due to the complexity of factors that affect shaping language attitudes, we are likely to come across different attitudes towards language varieties.

Having reviewed the development of NA (in 2.3), motivations, and attitudes as relevant constructs in ESP and EIL studies, and as major elements of the current project

framework, I will now attempt to present some relevant studies that approached these three constructs, so the originality of the current study might be revealed. In particular, I will attempt to position the study in relation to other similar studies conducted both in the expanding-circle countries and the context of the upcoming study, i.e. SA.