combating the IAS threat
Introduction
T
he Wider Caribbean Region (WCR), as a region and as individual countries, can be highly complex. For example, the archipelago of the Bahamas consists of about 700 atolls and cays of which roughly 30 to 40 are inhabited. CARICOM countries are part of the Wider Caribbean Region (WCR) which is known as a biodiversity hotspot.(1) This means that a large number of organisms (microbial, flora andfauna) exist within a relatively small area. More interestingly, many of the organisms or species found in the WCR are not found anywhere else in the world.
However, the Caribbean itself is rather vulnerable to a range of factors that can have substantial negative effects on this level of biodiversity: hurricanes, human encroachment on the natural environment and climate change impacts. This is further compounded by the presence of invasive alien species. Invasive Alien Species (IAS) are plants, animals or micro-organisms in all major groups of organisms, not native to an ecosystem. Within each group numerous species including perhaps as many as 10 percent of the world’s 300,000 woody plants have the potential to invade other ecosystems and affect native biota in direct or indirect ways.(2)
This paper aims to sensitise individuals and alert decision makers about the dangers of the IAS threat to native biodiversity which, next to human capital, is the most valuable resource owned by the Caribbean region. It seeks to enhance understanding that threats to biodiversity translate to serious threats to lives and livelihoods, including agriculture and the capacity to sustain food production. Part I provides the general context for the treatment of IAS as a threat, by emphasising the importance of the biodiversity wealth of the Caribbean region. That biodiversity offers tremendous scope, for food production, non- food agriculture and a host of other viable economic activities. However, the potential of such diverse biodiversity is grossly under-appreciated and under-utilised for the sustainable development of the region. Notwithstanding its value, critical elements of the biodiversity have been altered, affected and continue to be threatened by economic activity, including farming, other facets of the agriculture industry, trade and tourism which have facilitated introduction of IAS.
Information on the biodiversity profile of the WCR extracted from “Mitigating the Threat of Invasive Alien Species in the Insular Caribbean, UNEP Project Document, Unpublished, GFL/2378-2740/4995. CAB International.
2 “Plant invasions and invasibility of plant communities” Rejmánek, M. Richardson and Pyš. P. (2005) Vegetation ecology (ed. E. Van de Maarel) pp.332-355. Blackwell Publishing, Oxford.
Farming Change, growing more food with a changing resource base 103 Part II engages in a detailed discussion of how these undesirable IAS have arrived, by natural spread, or been introduced, mostly accidentally, but often times through deliberate actions, but not before the reader is treated to a detailed explanation of what exactly is an IAS. It is well recognised that while IAS may have been present in the region for decades, several of these species may have escaped detection and hence have become ‘naturalised’ and are now considered part of the region’s biodiversity. Several examples can be found in commercial crop and livestock production and as well, among domesticated animals, including cats. Of note, however, is the clarification that not all invasives are necessarily alien species and that poor practices, such as over-use of fertilisers and their run off, would have created conditions for some indigenous species to exhibit characteristics of IAS.
Part III admits therefore, that agriculture is part of both the IAS problem and solution. IAS impacts on agriculture have resulted in higher production costs, loss of trade opportunities, with continued threat of reduced productivity and eventually reduced food production. Newer IAS threats are also emerging due to increased trade as well as other key pathways for IAS introductions, elevating the current threat levels for agriculture. For example, the potential threat of Frosty Pod Rot to the cocoa industry is being closely monitored in Trinidad and Tobago.
Part IV sets out a well defined and proven framework for combating the IAS threat that emphasises, prevention as the first and best line of defence, and if this fails, then preventing their spread through early detection, eradication and control measures as required. It is important to appreciate that both eradication and control options need to be evaluated on the basis of the likelihood of success, cost effectiveness and any potential detrimental impacts.
Part V concludes with some key points with regards to the issues, perspectives and critical response requirements for managing the IAS threat and securing sustainable food production, agricultural development and human wellbeing in the Caribbean. Utilisation of the wider concept of IAS, as opposed to ‘exotic pests and diseases’ has served to broaden the challenge and dialogue beyond agriculture, to environmental interests, as well as public health and the entertainment, tourism and pet services and to shed light on why IAS has become an issue. It attempts in some cases, in a direct manner, and in others, by inference, to illustrate the gravity of the IAS threat to sustainable food production, loss of income, loss of important ecosystem services, such as soil capability and eventually increased reliance on food imports.
The paper therefore seeks to provide a reference base for stakeholders in agriculture and sectors directly related to natural resources and biodiversity. It also provides basic information that can be used to support the identification of possible solutions to comprehensively and collectively combat the IAS threat.
Critical Issues, Options and Perspectives (CIPO) 104
1. Caribbean biodiversity
1.1 A Region with High Levels of Species Endemism
Biodiversity refers to the degree of variation of life forms within a given ecosystem; i.e., the biological environment consisting of the living and non-living things present in that place. The WCR has been designated as one of the world’s biodiversity hotspots and spans 4.31 million km2 of ocean and 0.26
million km2 of land.(3) The Caribbean borders the Mesoamerica hotspot(4) and a number of near-shore
and offshore islands in the Caribbean Sea are biologically important for their endemic species
.
The terrestrial and aquatic (freshwater) ecosystems of the Caribbean also boast exceptionally high levels of species endemism, as shown in Table 1. (5)Table 1: Species diversity and Endemism in the Insular Caribbean
Taxonomic Group # Species # Endemic Species % Endemism
Plants 13,000 6,550 50 Mammals 89 41 46 Birds 604 163 27 Reptiles 502 469 93 Amphibians 170 170 100 Freshwater Fishes 161 65 40
Source: Conservation International, http://www.conservation.org/where/priority_areas/hotspots/north_central_america/Caribbean- Islands/Pages/biodiversity.aspx
The marine ecosystem diversity in the Caribbean includes about 60 species of corals and about 1,500 species of fish, nearly a quarter of which are endemic. Indeed, the greatest concentration of fish species in the Atlantic Ocean Basin occurs in the northern part of the hotspot in waters shared by The Bahamas, Cuba and the United States. The Caribbean Islands have more than 160 species of freshwater fish, about 65 of which are endemic to one or a few islands, and many of these to just a single lake or springhead. As in other island hotspots, there are two distinct groups of freshwater fishes in the Caribbean: on smaller and younger islands, most fish are species that are widespread in marine waters but also enter freshwater to some degree, while on the larger and older islands of the Greater Antilles, there are several groups that occupy inland waters, including gars, killifishes, silversides and cichlids.
3 http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/caribbean/ 4 http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/mesoamerica/
5 the information on species endemism in the Caribbean draws heavily from Conservation International, Caribbean Islands – Species - Unique biodiversity, http:// www.conservation.org/where/priority_areas/hotspots/north_central_america/Caribbean-Islands/Pages/biodiversity.aspx
Farming Change, growing more food with a changing resource base 105 Plant diversity and endemism are very high in the Caribbean Islands,
with an estimated 13,000 species, including more than 6,500 single- island endemics. Endemism at higher levels is also exceptional, with 205 plant genera and one plant family, the Goetziaceae, found nowhere else on Earth. Endemism is also significant at the island level; about one-quarter of the region’s vascular flora is restricted to a single island – Cuba. Jamaica has also been ranked fifth among islands of the world in terms of endemic plants.
A wide range of animal species is also endemic to the Caribbean. For example, Jamaica is ranked as having a high level of endemism for animal species, estimated at 98.2 percent of the 514 indigenous species of land snails and all of the 22 indigenous species of amphibians. The Caribbean Islands have 41 endemic mammal species, including two endemic rodent families: Solenodontidae and Capromyidae. The family Solenodontidae includes two surviving but endangered species; the Cuban solenodon (Solenodon cubanus) and Hispaniolan solenodon (S. paradoxus), which are rare giant shrews. The Capromyidae includes 20 species of rodents, known locally as hutias, which are prized for their meat.
According to Conservation International, over 600 species of birds have been recorded in the Caribbean, 163 of which are endemic. Of these regional endemics, 105 species are confined to single islands. Thirteen bird species have already gone extinct; six of those species were of the genus Ara, the large and brightly-feathered macaws. The Cuban macaw (Ara tricolor), the last of the six to disappear, was hunted to extinction for food and the pet trade during the second half of the 18th century. Among the most important bird symbols for conservation in the Caribbean are the parrots, including the St. Vincent parrot (Amazona guildingii, VU), the Saint Lucia parrot (Amazona versicolor, VU), and the imperial parrot (Amazona
imperialis, EN) of Dominica. All three species are strikingly colored and
rely on undisturbed forest for survival.
Dominica Sisserou parrot (Amazona
imperalis) Source:
worldatlas.com
Goetzia elegans flowers Source: home-and-garden.
Critical Issues, Options and Perspectives (CIPO) 106
More than 120 bird species migrate from their breeding grounds in North America to winter in the Caribbean. The Caribbean is the most important (and sometimes the exclusive) wintering ground for a number of North American species such as the declining Cape May warbler, Northern parula, black- throated blue warbler, palm warbler and prairie warbler. It is also the only wintering ground for globally threatened migrants such as kirtland’s warbler, Bicknell’s thrush and (the possibly extinct) Bachman’s warbler. In Trinidad and Tobago, 467 bird species have been recorded. These include six globally threatened species. Saint Lucia’s avifauna (i.e. birds) totals 177 species, of which seven are endemic and seven are globally threatened.
The Insular Caribbean is also particularly rich in reptile diversity, with 502 species, of which 469 (93 percent) are endemic. The diversity includes several large evolutionary radiations of lizards, such as the anoles (Anolis; 154 species, 150 endemic) with their colourful dewlaps used in displays; dwarf geckos (Sphaerodactylus; 86 species, 82 endemic); and curly tails (Leiocephalus; 23 species, all endemic) that hold their tails in a coil as they run. What this means is that there are species diversities in these lizards that are very unique and based on the specific conditions present in the country. This lizard fauna includes the smallest lizards in the world, Sphaerodactylus ariasae from the Dominican Republic and S. parthenopion from the U.S. Virgin Islands. Also included in the reptile fauna are nine species of rock iguana, all threatened, from the genus Cyclura including some that are over one metre long. The Jamaican iguana (Cyclura collei, CR) was thought to be extinct until a small population of about 200 individuals was rediscovered in 1990 in the Hellshire Hills of Jamaica.
The region’s rich source of diversity in flora, fauna and microbes and in particular the high levels of endemic species may be the most abundant resource and second to human capital in terms of potential to chart a path for sustainable development in the Caribbean.
Biodiversity is emerging as a fundamental resource for bio-prospecting, the study of organisms for potential applications in food, fuel, nutraceutical, pharmaceutical and other industries. Bio-prospecting is a multi-billion dollar industry that could greatly support sustainable development and product innovation in the Caribbean and contribute to the achievement of multiple development goals. These include generating revenues for protected areas, conservation projects and local communities; building scientific and technological capacity to study and manage biodiversity; raising awareness of the commercial and non-commercial importance of biodiversity; creating businesses dependent upon the sustainable management of resources; and generating large profits(6). These benefits may occur at
the local, national or regional levels which also offer scope for cooperation within the Caribbean.
Farming Change, growing more food with a changing resource base 107
1.2 Agricultural Biodiversity, Food Production and Nutrition
It has been observed that ‘...we (Caribbean) accept that our nutrition must be based on five basic
products - wheat, corn, potatoes, rice, soya bean,..., when we decided or someone decided for us that our nutritional base must depend on a narrow base of genetic material that someone else defines ... and yet there are 270,000 species of plants in this world.’(7) In this regard, promoting an appreciation
of the value of region’s diversity is of utmost and urgent importance. Indeed, the region’s biodiversity is ‘priceless’!
Placing renewed emphasis on sustaining the natural variety of crops and animals contributing to agriculture, including neglected yet nutritious traditional foods, can improve food security and address growing global concerns over poor nutrition and its negative health effects.(8) Meeting the challenge
of feeding the world population of around nine billion by 2050 will require consideration, of not only sustainably producing sufficient food, but also working towards diversified nutrition. This is the challenge of providing a healthy diet for all. Agricultural biodiversity plays a central role in meeting this challenge.(9)
The diversity of crops and their wild relatives, trees, animals, microbes and other species contributing to food production – known as agricultural biodiversity – can counter global trends in hunger and micronutrient malnutrition, obesity and diet-related chronic illness which have reached critical levels in over one-third of the world’s population. Agricultural biodiversity is also absolutely essential to cope with the predicted impacts of climate change. (10)
According to GEF, agricultural biodiversity provides the mainstay for millions of people worldwide and food security to the world’s most vulnerable populations.(11) This underscores the importance of not only
valuing biodiversity in general, but importantly, valuing agricultural biodiversity and understanding its links to good nutrition. The launch of the ‘Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition Project’ is a most timely and absolutely critical project which aims to address the narrowing variety of people’s diets, with nutritionally- poor processed foods dominating the dinner table.(12) Examples of these foods, some of which have
gained global popularity (13), are:
7 Extracted from discussion at a CaRAPN-CTA-IICA-CARDI Agriculture Round Table (ART) Caribbean Week of Agriculture (CWA) 2008
8 ‘New Agricultural Biodiversity Project to Improve Nutrition and Food Security Worldwide - Undervalued Yet Nutritious Traditional Foods Can Make the Difference’ press release from the launch of a new international project at the World Nutrition Rio Congress 202. www.bioversityinternational.org
9 Braulio Dias, Executive Secretary, Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) at the launch of the Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition Project in Rio de Janeiro on 28 April 202.
0 Emile Frison, Director General of Biodiversity International, at the launch of the Biodiversity for Food and Nutrition Project in Rio de Janeiro on 28 April 202. Monique Barbut, CEO and Chairperson of the GEF
2 The Global Environment Facility (GEF), the world’s largest public funder of international environmental projects, is supporting the multi-country project led by Brazil, Kenya, Sri Lanka and Turkey. Biodiversity International is coordinating the project with implementation support from the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).
Critical Issues, Options and Perspectives (CIPO) 108
Indigenous leafy vegetables such as amaranth leaves, cleome and nightshade, which are now acknowledged as significant sources of vitamins, minerals and anti-oxidants.
Lycopene-rich guava varieties, acerola and pitanga. In Brazil, which already has a great deal of biodiversity in its food supply, these former garden fruits are now commercially produced and processed. Another nutrient-rich fruit from Brazil and elsewhere is the popular açaí berry.
Food condiments and spices, which have recently been reported to have anti-diabetic, anti- inflammatory, anti-mutagenic, and anti carcinogenic properties. Spices also contribute to daily intakes of iron, zinc and calcium.
Arugula (or rocket), a nutritious vegetable once collected as a wild food, and quinoa, an extremely nutritious grain-like crop from the Andes, have both found wide-scale acceptance in the grocery aisles and on restaurant tables throughout the world as a healthy and tasty food. Quinoa holds particular promise in that it is highly adaptable to different climatic and geographic conditions. The United Nations has declared 2013 to be the year of the Quinoa.
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Quinua (Quinoa) plants near Cachora, Apurímac, Peru. Altitude: 3800m (Photo: Maurice Chédel, Wikipedia)
Farming Change, growing more food with a changing resource base 109
1.3 A Region With Vulnerable and Fragile Biodiversity
The area of ocean encompassing the islands of the Caribbean, excluding Bermuda, is nearly 5 million km². The total area of land is approximately 240,000 km². The average percentage of protected land area for Caribbean and Central America is 8.6 percent compared to a global average of 10.8 percent. The Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZ) of the insular Caribbean countries far exceed the national land areas. Hence, there is a ratio of sea : land of about 20:1.(14) This large ratio of water to land, as well as
the presence of many landing sites on the extensive coastlines make it very demanding to conduct effective inspection and surveillance activities to prevent the introduction of IAS and subsequent spread within the Caribbean.
Consequently, the absence of clear borders in the marine environment makes small island states particularly vulnerable to IAS introductions and also severely limits management options. Detection of IAS, particularly at low densities, is difficult. Species spread in a three-dimensional fluid system, where monitoring is a difficult and costly task. Moreover, many eradication and control options (e.g. clearance, shooting, pesticides, herbicides, biological control, etc.) that are used in terrestrial biota are harder to apply in the aquatic systems. The vulnerability and fragility of biodiversity on small and fragile islands(15)
was reiterated at the 9th Conferences of the Parties (COP9) in 2008. Among the key reasons is the
relatively low buffer capacity of small islands to severe environmental fluctuations and events. Hurricanes and other severe weather events have already taken a toll on the natural environment and climate change also presents substantial threats to vulnerable marine, freshwater and terrestrial biodiversity in the Caribbean.
The vulnerability of small and fragile islands also derives from the fact that species often become concentrated in small and fragmented areas. At these marginal breeding sites they are subject to various natural and anthropogenic pressures that endanger their survival. Some endangered species have below critical mass breeding populations. Their interchange is further restricted by habitat fragmentation. However, those species that have evolved on islands have done so free from competition with large numbers of other species and therefore lack adequate defences and are susceptible to invasions by alien species. As a result, islands exhibit the highest proportion of recorded species extinctions brought