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Earlier studies on resilience reported that children who were exposed to challenges such as parental mental illness (Anthony & Cohler, 1987) could develop well in life because of their individual qualities. The individual qualities suggested included skills such as autonomy, temperament such as tenacity or genetic qualities like intelligence (Anthony & Cohler, 1987; Rutter; 1987). In other words, these researchers believed that individual personal traits and characteristics were the determinants of the ability to function well despite exposure to adversity.

Resilience research that foregrounds individual traits as an outcome of resilience has met with considerable opposition. For instance, Ungar (2010) comments that the conceptualisation of resilience as attributed to individual qualities disregards the positive and effective role that can be played by the ecology of the individuals. Earlier, Cook and Du Toit (2005), highlighted the significance of the opportunities that communities and cultures could provide in order for children to “develop their sense of control, self efficacy and a positive sense of self and identity” (p.248). In other words, individuals‟ internal strengths cannot be unleashed if their environments do not provide opportunities for such processes. There are studies that have summarised these intrapersonal or individual characteristics, such as (Kumpfer, 1999; Theron, 2004; Van Rensburg & Bernard, 2005). I have summarised those characteristics in Table 2 and reviewed some of them below:

Table 2:

Individual characteristics contributing to resilience (Kumpfer, 1999; Wright, Masten & Narayan, 2006; Masten & Obradovic, 2006; Theron, 2009)

Skills Temperament Genetic qualities

 Problem solving skills

 Assertiveness

 Autonomy

 Good interpersonal skills

 Internal locus of control

 Impulse control  Emotional regulation  Behavioural regulation  Planning skills  Social maturity  Flexibility

 Positive meaning making

 Sense of humour

 Sunny temperament

 Tenacity

 Positive self concept

 Positive attitude  Positive emotion  Drive  Enthusiasm  Hopefulness/positive future orientation  Affectionate  Achievement orientation  Attractiveness  Good health  Intelligence  Birth order  Special talents Skills

Internal locus of control

Resilient individuals are reported to have a greater internal locus of control, which makes them hopeful and able to think positively about themselves and others (Werner & Smith, 1992; Joseph, 1994; Van Rensburg & Barnard, 2005). An internal locus of control allows one to believe that one has a life purpose, which leads one to plan and perceive of oneself as able to influence one‟s environment and future destiny (Kumpfer, 1999).

Autonomy

A sense of autonomy which is linked to an internal locus of control gives individuals the ability to cope with their adverse circumstances (Van Rensburg & Barnard, 2005). As a result, individuals with autonomy are not threatened by difficult situations, as they have the ability to

renew hope and act more assertively in difficult situations (Boyden & Mann, 2005). An ability to be alert and autonomous is regarded as a protective factor (Armstrong, et al., 2005).

Problem- solving skills

A problem solving skill is a component of resilience (Anthony, 1987; Masten, Best & Garmezy, 1990; Ungar, Brown, Liebenberg, Cheung & Levine, 2008). Literature indicates that individuals who have problem solving skills tend to be more confident and more inclined to take control of their life situation. (Van Rensburg & Barnard, 2005).

Interpersonal social skills

Resilient children have a sense of empathy and good listening and communication skills and are willing to care of and take responsibility for others (Kumpfer, 1999). However, literature indicates that when these coping skills are combined with the availability of social supports and the willingness to use external supports, they can buffer risks in their lives (Masten & Coatsworth, 1998).

Temperament Self-efficacy

Ungar (2008), notes that children and youth can learn from their experiences and failures and develop self efficacy, which is regarded as protection against adversity. Self efficacy is an individual‟s belief that he can perform a task successfully (Bong & Skaalvik, 2003, p.6). The premise is that people are capable of achieving success if there is a dynamic interplay of personal, behavioural and environmental factors. In other words, their inner capabilities can be based on children and youth‟s sense of autonomy and the ability to control what is happening in their lives.

High self esteem

Research reveals that high self esteem (Masten & Powell, 2003; Theron, 2004) contributes positively to resilience as children tend to accept their own potential and limitations. Generally children face difficult situations with confidence (Buckner, Mezzacappa & Beardslee, 2003). This confidence is linked to their sense of self efficacy as they regard themselves as being competent to perform certain tasks and are able to influence the choice of tasks they engage in (Kumpfer, 1999). Masten and Powell (2003) are of the view that individuals with high self esteem think positively about themselves.

Sense of humour

A sense of humour (Malindi & Theron, 2010) is identified as a resilience contributing factor. It seems to help the children and youth who are at risk to cope emotionally. In other words, one way of dealing with their experiences is to laugh about them (Malindi & Theron, 2010). Humour is an interpersonal skill that also helps individuals to establish and maintain friendships (Kumpfer, 1999).

Positive emotion

Resilient individuals are characterised as reasonably happy people (Mancini & Bonanno, 2009). The ability to be hopeful, positive and optimistic may occur because of mastery of experiences and good mental health practices, eating well and getting exercise, in addition to working and playing well (Garmerzy ,1983; Cluver & Gardner, 2007).

Genetic qualities Intelligence

Intelligent children are regarded as having good problem-solving skills, which implies that they can adapt to adverse situations (Kumpfer, 1999). In some cases, since they are

intelligent, they perform well at school, which in turn contributes to higher self esteem (Masten & Powell, 2003). These children could find school as a place in which they are positively affirmed as they manage to pass with top marks and receive compliments from their teachers. Children of depressed and schizophrenic parents were found to generally possess superior intellectual capabilities (Werner & Smith, 1982).

Gender

Generally, girls have been found to be more resilient than boys, as boys appear to be vulnerable outside their home care (Werner, 1995). Rutter (1987) suggests that boys react emotionally and behaviourally in more negative ways to negative family situations than girls.

Individual resilience studies seem to have contributed to understanding resilience research, as the discussion above indicates. This research paved the way for other researchers to question what could cause different outcomes, other than innate abilities. In the next section, I will discuss the interpersonal protective resources that play a role in the resilience process.