This section will examine aspects of second language learning related to the challenges faced by adult learners specifically addressing learners‟ strategies, the impacts of language learning on identity, the concerns of culture stress in language learning, and the consequences for the second language learner.
Although all participants in this study had learned English to some extent in their school years, their experiences as adult learners of English is the focus of this thesis. Returning to a formal learning situation in the adult years involves its own changes and challenges as assumptions that adult learners hold about themselves, their capabilities and their perceptions of themselves as learners come under examination. In any classroom situation, there are also diverse dynamics, such as cultural
influences and the perception of competition, which affect the experience of the adult learners.
It is well documented in the literature that returning to a formal learning context can trigger memories of past, at times unpleasant, learning experiences which may have impacted life choices. Willans and Seary (2007) mention adult learners‟
“assumptions related specifically to perceptions of intelligence, the fear of being ridiculed and hurt, and a perceived inability to succeed in a formal learning context” (p. 435). In the ESL classroom, as in any adult teaching and learning context, learners‟ prior experiences of second language learning in general, or English
language learning specifically, can facilitate the learning process but, where negative assumptions are held, experience can also become an impediment to the language learning process or a hurdle to overcome, as affirmed by Foster (1997):
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Regardless of their motivation, most learners have a personal history with language learning that they carry with them from earlier years. Memories of their past experiences remain vivid. When the memory is positive, it can provide a familiar base upon which to build. When the memory is negative or even traumatic, however, the decision to return to language study can fill these learners with unease, anxiety or fear. (p. 33)
Furthermore, the second language classroom, whether in the home country or in a host culture, has its own unique challenges to the self, perhaps more so than any other discipline. Unlike other subject areas where learners can articulate their difficulties without restraint, second language learners are “personally implicated in the acquisition of the subject matter, or the technical skills of the language. As soon as learners embark on acquiring the basics of a language, they are also required to communicate” (Foster, 1997, p. 35), and this communication takes place in front of their peers. Foster (1997) comments that, “Perhaps no other discipline influences self-concept and self-expression to the degree that language studies do” (p. 36) stating also that language difficulties can undermine the sense of identity of the learner in a way that other subject areas do not.
A facet of language acquisition and one that is considered to be essential in becoming a successful language learner is the willingness to take risks; to actively use the language when presented with opportunities to do so (Brown, 2000). However, actively using the language is a complex process involving both understanding the content of the language and the delivery of the message in a manner that is understandable to others, requiring choice of appropriate vocabulary and clear pronunciation. In the early stages of language learning particularly, this entails learners becoming vulnerable as, “almost any effort in the target language undermines the learner‟s self-concept as a competent communicator” (Foster, 1997, p. 35). The interlocutor is fully responsible for the speech act, there is no mediator, and consequently the self is left vulnerable. Adults who have functioned well in their first language and held responsibilities in their families, workplaces and
communities, find their ability to function independently in the new culture severely restricted, and as Storti (2001) describes, “Feeling like a schoolboy does little to boost the expat‟s self-esteem and self-confidence, two more casualties of being
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unable to speak the local language” (p. 99). This can be compounded when attitudes of locals in the host culture, who do not understand the learners‟ circumstances, are less than helpful. Foster (1997) describes the challenges these experiences can present to the language learner:
The intermediate interaction with the language and culture can directly threaten an individual‟s self-concept and worldview. Learners typically perceive themselves to be reasonably intelligent, socially adept individuals who are sensitive to different social mores. Such personal assumptions are rarely challenged when individuals are communicating in their native language, simply because it is not so difficult to make oneself understood or to understand others. Learning another language is markedly different. (p. 35)
This is illustrated by participants in Tsui‟s (1996) study of secondary school ESL teachers who commented that students did not respond to teacher questions due to fear of being laughed at, fear of losing face if they gave the wrong answer, fear that their answers would not satisfy the teacher, and a reticence to answer unless they had the right answer. Foster (1997) also comments that “the typical reaction is one of reticence, self-consciousness, fear, or even panic” (p. 35). When these anxieties continue into the adult language learning experience they produce difficulties for the learner, particularly when learning in a context that is not familiar, such as in a new country with its own, possibly divergent, expectations of the learner. Tsui (1996) notes that in an ESL classroom learners are “constantly putting themselves in a vulnerable position of having their own self-concept undermined and subjecting themselves to negative evaluations” (p. 155), which is reflected in feelings of anxiety.
Language anxiety is identifiable as a specific anxiety associated with second language learning and recognised as such in the literature. It involves feelings of “tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with an arousal of the automatic nervous system” (Tanveer 2007, p. 4). Tanveer (2007) notes that speaking in English provokes the most concern and contributing factors to language anxiety are a lack of input and lack of practice in social contexts. Any situation in which the language learner is placed and feels they may reveal weakness or deficiencies will
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cause anxiety, Tanveer (2007) commenting that, “Anxiety has also been found to be exacerbated by students‟ feelings of low proficiency or lack of confidence in general linguistic knowledge, the evidence of which students do not want to display” (p. 61). These feelings are exacerbated in the classroom when “the language instructor‟s
manner of error correction is rigid and humiliating” (Tanveer, 2007, p. 61). Contributing factors to language anxiety may be an uncertainty about context in which language learning or usage takes place; social factors that trigger the
“predisposition among some people to experience such anxiety because of their own concerns about ethnicity, foreignness, and the like” (Tanveer, 2007, p. 5). The target language is also intrinsically entwined with the community it represents with anxiety caused by insecurity when negotiating the new cultural rules, an unequal social status where the language learner feels inferior to the interlocutor, or where the learner‟s
self image may be compromised (Tanveer, 2007, p. 62). Manifestations of language anxiety noted by Tanveer (2007) include “behavioural changes such as engaging in negative self-talk and ruminating over poor performance ... and having unrealistic high performance standards” (p. 29). Brown (2000) categorises three performance related components of language anxiety: communication anxiety; fear of negative social evaluation; and test anxiety. Although deep levels of anxiety can be debilitating, some level of anxiety, Brown (2000) employing the term facilitative anxiety, can enable individuals to perform to a higher level or to put more effort into the task at hand.
The role of the teacher in reducing language anxiety is considered vital. Tanveer (2007) presents recommendations for ELT to assist teachers in helping learners overcome language anxiety and deal with “the potentially pervasive and detrimental effect of language anxiety” (p. 65). Teacher understanding of the phenomenon of language anxiety is important so that where learners are struggling with this it can be identified and support provided. Tanveer (2007) notes the importance of the teacher understanding some aspects of the learners‟ individual cultural backgrounds and prior second language learning experiences. To counter anxiety produced by previous language learning experiences Tanveer recommends providing
opportunities to practise speaking through implementing “a truly communicative approach” (2007, p. 63) in a supportive environment where learners feel comfortable. Development of a classroom environment where learners recognise the importance
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of making mistakes in the process of developing skills, where the perception of competition between learners is reduced, and where reasonable expectations and performance standards are given will assist learners overcome erroneous beliefs about the language learning process. Classroom discussion on the topic of language anxiety also develops learner awareness of the phenomenon.
It is also recognised that restricted language skills in the L2 limit the extent to which the self can be expressed; there is a “disparity between who they know themselves to be and how they represent themselves in the classroom” (Foster, 1997, p. 36). They are constrained in how much of the genuine self they can convey, as Foster observes, “There is unmistakeable disparity between the „true‟ self and the limited self as revealed in the second language” (p. 35). Although communication and interaction with people in the target language may be possible on some level, for the language learner, the self may not be fully expressed in the target language as Storti (2001) comments:
On a deeper level, if you can‟t communicate your ideas and opinions to people, how can they know who you are? And if you can‟t understand others, how can you know them? ...Not truly knowing others, not feeling you are known by them, you feel alone and isolated... Language is the primary means of self-expression; when we don‟t have language, the self does not get expressed. (p. 101)
Storti (2001) comments on the additional energy and effort required when interacting with people in the new country, as follows:
With new people, however, who don‟t yet have an impression of you, you tend to be very careful of what you say and do until you see how they respond. Being careful like this, paying close, conscious attention to
everything you say and do, takes considerable emotional and physical effort. (p. 7)
However, the benefits of learning another language, or the language of the culture in which you live, can be recognised before language proficiency is reached. The efforts of the language learner are appreciated by native speakers, particularly those who have themselves learnt another language, not least because, as Storti (2001) writes, “Implicit in the act, after all, is the acknowledgement of the humanity and
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worth of the other person” (p. 102), the feelings of vulnerability are lessened and cultural learning begins, even in the early stages of language learning.
It is clear that learning a second language as an adult is a complex process involving aspects of returning to learning that are common to all adult learning contexts but others that are specific to second language learning. The experience of these language learners “reminds us that adults cannot be considered isolated from their prior experience and life context” (King, 2000, p. 82) and yet another layer of complexity is added when the language learning occurs in a country other than one‟s
own, where, to function independently, learning the target language is essential and the time in which to do so is limited, as was the case for the adults in this study. Adults with their added responsibilities, generally attempt to learn the target language as efficiently and effectively as possible within the time frame available. To this end, strategies that expedite acquisition of the target language are helpful for both second language learner and teacher to take into consideration for their own praxis.