Programas de la Fundación Smurfit Kappa Colombia – FSKC

Scientific research has undergone paradigm shifts over the last several decades. Shifts occur in cumulative processes which eventually evolve into the adoption of a new outlook on the part of the researchers as well as the community (Jacobs & Farrell 2001:1). Political philosophers such as Frances Bacon and John Locke argue that the study of human beings could be conducted in the same fashion as the study of nature. This view, called Logical Positivism, postulates a rationalistic view of knowledge, which was the foundation of the scientific method during that era (McMillan & Schumacher 2010:5).

Twentieth century paradigm shifts focused on a change in perspective from logical positivism to post-positivism. The post-positivism view in research allows for the limitations of focus on only the objective and the quantifiable, to the consideration also of the subjective and the non-quantifiable (Farrell & Jacobs 2001:2). In addition, post-positivism allows for an emphasis on contextual factors and a focus on the process and diversity in contrast to the product and the attempt to standardise (Jacobs & Farrell 2001:3).

Post-positivism, which became the paradigm which controlled academic beliefs throughout most of the twentieth century, postulates that reality is structured by entities and their relationship to one another (Jonassen et al 2007:46). This objectivist belief in a single reality gave way to another paradigm, namely Interpretive/constructivism which emphasises multiple socially constructed realities in which the belief is that reality is constructed by individuals and societies based on their experiences and interactions with and their interpretations of the world in which they live (Jonassen, et al 2007:46).

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The research design section for this study includes the rationale for conducting this research and an explanation of why it was situated within the Interpretive/Constructivist paradigm. A mixed method approach was employed which involved a quantitative as well as qualitative study to measure the outcomes of the curricular initiative. A more comprehensive discussion of the research design and methodology is provided in Chapter 4.

1.8.1 Rationale

The rationale for conducting this empirical research was to determine the efficacy of the English literature programme in terms of its stated purpose which is to teach HOTS in an EFL literature programme to high school students, improve their understanding of HOTS and improve their ability to write with HOTS. Moreover, the rationale was to create an opportunity for professional critique and scrutiny by EFL educators in the country and the Ministry of Education English Inspectorate on the findings and to encourage further studies. This research enables both replication and generalisation so that the information gathered could be used in subsequent research.

1.8.2 Research paradigm

The interpretive/constructivist paradigm argues that the mind constructs its own conceptual map for interpreting and interacting with the world around it. Accordingly, knowledge, perceptions, imaginations and mental constructions are all a part of the human experience, rather than being independent from the person (Jonassen, et al 2007:46). With an interpretive/constructivist paradigm, researchers allow for their judgments and perspectives to play a role in the interpretation of the data, thereby putting more emphasis on values and context and less on numbers (McMillan & Schumacher 2010:6).

Like all other research designs, the interpretive/constructivist design shares a common principle of searching for knowledge by systematically gathering empirical information. This is referred to as evidence-based inquiry. In evidence-based inquiry the researchers provide coherent questions which can

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be empirically investigated and linked to relevant scientific theories or conceptual frameworks and then understood or explained within a logical chain of reasoning (McMillan & Schumacher 2010:6-7).

1.8.3 Research approach

Having explained the paradigm in which this study was conducted, it is important to note that although qualitative approaches to doing research are favoured in the interpretive/constructivist paradigm, quantitative approaches are not excluded. This research therefore involved a mixed method approach, specifically triangulation (section 4.4.3) which incorporated both quantitative and qualitative methods.

The researcher chose the quasi-experimental design of interrupted time series for the quantitative aspect of the study. This is similar to a one group pretest-posttest design except it is extended by the use of a number of tests during a defined research period (Marczyk, DeMatteo & Festinger 2005:139). Observing the fluctuation scores on the bridging essays (dependent variable) over time allowed the researcher to more accurately interpret the impact of the independent variable (the literature programme which incorporates HOTS).

Furthermore, the qualitative approach involved two procedures, firstly, giving the participants in the study an opinionnaire comprising of open-ended questions on the programme. They were requested to provide open answers in writing on questions which asked; 1) If they enjoyed reading the pieces in the English literature programme, 2) To name one aspect of the English literature programme which they found challenging and explain why, 3) To identify a HOTS and describe it and 4) If they could now apply a HOTS to their reading and writing and to provide an example to demonstrate they acquired these skills (appendix H). Secondly, a qualitative analysis of 18 bridging essays was conducted to help determine the extent to which

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participants’ writing with a HOTS improved over the two year period of the study.

1.9 RESEARCH METHODS

The research methods included a purposefully selected group of 50 high school students from two different schools to participate in this study and collecting and assessing three bridging essays from each student over a two year period (section 4.7.1). The bridging essays were copied and marked by three separate markers who underwent training in the English literature programme and had experience in teaching it to students as well.

The grades for each essay were entered on a rubric (appendix E & section 4.7.1.1). The scores were analysed using statistical software which created histograms, line graphs and tables that showed the mean scores of individual markers separately and compared to one another as well as the combined mean scores over a two year period.

The bridging essays also underwent a qualitative analysis. Eighteen essays were purposefully chosen based on the criteria of those with the most improvement, average improvement and least improvement over the two year period. The qualitative analysis of these essays captured emerging themes which were discussed in chapter four (section 4.7.2).

The same students whose essays were collected and marked completed an opinionnaire at the end of the programme. The opinionnaire answers were coded by two coders who developed the master coding sheet and the students’ responses were segmented and analysed to reveal themes that emerged from the data (section 6.4).

1.9.1 Selection of participants

The participants in the study were essentially selected as “a sample of convenience” (Marczyk, et al 2005:155) since they were accessible for this

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study. They were students from two different high schools who were among the first students who were obligated to complete the English literature programme mandated by the Ministry of Education English Inspectorate. The participants represented the highest level of English students in Israel; the ones who take the most rigorous of English examinations referred to as the five point English matriculation (Bagrut) examination. The English literature programme represents approximately one third of the assessments in English which these students must pass in order to receive their high school graduation certificates.

1.9.2 Data collection

In the data collection process, the emphasis was on what Van den Akker (1999:11) refers to as “information richness and efficiency”, most notably because there was an evaluation of three pieces of participants’ bridging essays over a two year period. A total number of 150 bridging essays produced by participants were assessed and analysed.

Bridging essays were chosen as the written format to analyse in this study because they measure one HOTS, “making connections” in a written essay. This involves finding connections between an unfamiliar piece of information presented to the student (a text or quotation which reflects actual events in the author’s life, or historical/cultural information in the context in which the story/poem/play or novel takes place) and having the student explain, in his/her bridging essay, how that new information connects to the literary text studied in class. The bridging essay can be a short answer, usually not less than 100 words and not longer than three paragraphs (sections 3.5.6.1 & 3.6.2). There were specific categories which were marked to evaluate the quality of the bridging essay (appendix E).

Each unit has two bridging questions and essays. One is part of the unit for the literary text studied (section1.5) and one is on the summative assessment for the literary text studied. The bridging essays from the summative

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assessments of the students were collected because they were written under “test conditions” in the classroom with the teacher present.

The multiple measures of the participants’ bridging essays occurred at three points during the two year period (section 4.3.2.1).The first was at the beginning of tenth grade, when the participants were first exposed to the English literature programme. The second time was at the beginning of eleventh grade, after one year of exposure to the English literature programme and the third measurement took place at the end of the eleventh grade, when the participants finished the programme.

Participants also had to answer five questions on an opinionnaire. The format of open-ended questions offered the participants the opportunity to explain their answers and provide examples. This is supported in the literature when Onwuegbuzie, Leech and Collins (2012:23) state that a simple “yes/no” response does not yield enough rich information to thoroughly measure the opinions of the respondent and analyse themes which emerge from those answers. Since the samples of participants were relatively small and purposive, there was an added value of getting optimally rich information. The opportunities for rich data collection methods can be limited with big numbers of research participants (Van den Akker 1999:11).

1.9.3 Data processing

A rubric, developed by the Ministry of Education English Inspectorate’s rubrics for grading bridging essays with modifications made by the researcher, was used throughout the study to score all bridging essays from each participant (appendix E). Modifications were made to the rubric to separate the “making connections” from the “content” category. This enabled the researcher to measure the use of HOTS by isolating those skills, which on the Ministry of Education English Inspectorate’s rubric are combined into one category (appendix F) that includes “content”.

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The quantitative results were charted on an excel sheet according to a rating scale which used descriptive statistics to rate the initial, interim and summative results on the participants’ bridging essays. These statistics were used to present the quantitative descriptions in a manageable form. Bridging essays were chosen for qualitative analysis based on the mean marks they received from all of the markers to delineate most improved, least improved and average improvement.

The opinionnaires were analysed by creating a master list for coding the responses of the participants with symbols, descriptive words and category designation to isolate specific ideas and opinions. In addition, segmenting the information provided a means for processing the data. Segmenting entails dividing data into significant analytic components such as words, sentences or passages that convey a specific meaning (Johnson & Christensen 2004:503). Each of the answers to the five opinionnaire questions were recorded and then analysed in terms of the themes which emerged from the data (section 4.7.3).

1.10 MEASURES FOR TRUSTWORTHINESS (VALIDITY AND