A. Mejorar el acceso a la conectividad
5. Promover el despliegue de puntos de intercambio de tráfico (IXP)
Composer Work Date
Samuel Barber Sonata, op. 6 1932
Ludwig van Beethoven Five Cello Sonatas: op. 5, nos. 1, 2; op. 69; c. 1795–1800; 1807; 1815 op. 102, nos. 1, 2
Ernest Bloch Schelomo for cello and orchestra 1916
Johannes Brahms Sonata no. 1 in E minor, op. 38 1866
Sonata no. 2 in F major, op. 99 1886
Benjamin Britten Sonata, op. 65 1961
Symphony for cello and orchestra 1964
Suite, op. 80 1968
Max Bruch Kol Nidrei for cello and orchestra 1880
Elliott Carter Sonata 1948
Frédéric Chopin Sonata in G, op. 65 1847
Luigi Dallapiccola Ciaccona, Intermezzo, e Adagio 1945
Claude Debussy Cello Sonata 1915
Tan Dun The Map 2003
Antonin Dvorˇák Rondo in G for cello and orchestra, op. 94 1891
Gabriel Fauré Elégie for cello and piano, op. 24 1883
Two Cello Sonatas: op. 109; op. 117 1917; 1921
Edvard Grieg Sonata in A minor, op. 36 1883
Hans Werner Henze Serenade 1949
Paul Hindemith Sonata for cello solo, op. 25, no. 3 1923
Sonata 1948
Arthur Honegger Cello Sonata 1920
Leosˇ Janácˇek Podháka 1910
Zoltán Kodály Sonata for unaccompanied cello, op. 8 1915
Bohuslav Martinu Two Cello Sonatas 1940; 1941
Felix Mendelssohn Sonata in B-flat, op. 45 1838
Sonata in D, op. 58 1842
Krzysztof Penderecki Capriccio per Siegfried Palm 1968
Tobias Picker Cello Suite 1999
Sergey Prokofiev Sonata, op. 119 1954
Sergey Rachmaninoff Sonata in G minor, op. 19 1901
Maurice Ravel Sonata for violin and cello 1922
Max Reger Four Sonatas: op. 5, 28, 78, 116 1892–1910
Three Suites, op. 131c 1915
Camille Saint-Saëns Sonatas, op. 32; op. 123 1872; 1905
Robert Schumann Fünf Stücke im Volkston, op. 102 1849
Dmitri Shostakovitch Cello Sonata, op. 40 1934
Richard Strauss Sonata, op. 6 1882
John Tavener The Protecting Veil for cello and orchestra 1989 Piotr Ilyitch Tchaikovsky Variations on a Rococo Theme, op. 33 1876 Heitor Villa-Lobos Bachianas Brasileirasno. 1, for eight cellos 1932
Bachianas Brasileiras no. 5, for eight cellos and voice 1939
Anton Webern Three Little Pieces,op. 11 1914
Iannis Xenakis Nomos alpha 1966
Bernd Alois Zimmermann Sonata 1960
chamber music 69
Ma. The accompanying chart lists some of the many works for cello written after 1800; see also the chart of cello concertos under CONCERTO. Like the other
members of the violin family, the cello traditionally is made of wood, usually maple. In recent years two innovations were developed. One is a cello made of carbon fiber, invented by two admirers of fiberglass sailboats; unlike wooden instruments, it is impervi- ous to weather, making it useful for outdoor con- certs. The other is the hypercello, linked with an interactive computer (see under ELECTRONIC INSTRUMENTS).
cembalo (chà em′bə lô′′). 1 An Italian word for
HARPSICHORD, also used in Germany. 2 The Italian
word for DULCIMER.
cent A unit of measure for musical intervals. One cent stands for 1/100 half tone of the equal-tempered scale; thus one octave is 1200 cents. Measurements of intervals are useful in comparing various systems of scales and tuning (see TEMPERAMENT).
C-flat One of the musical tones (see PITCH NAMES), one half tone below C and one half tone above B-flat. On the piano, C-flat is identical with B (see ENHARMONIC for an explanation; for the loca-
tion of C-flat on the piano, see KEYBOARD). chace (shàAs) French. See CACCIA.
chaconne (shàA kôn′) French. A moderately slow, stately dance in triple meter (any meter in which there are three basic beats per measure, such as 3/4 or 3/8) with a stress on the second beat, which became a popular instrumental form during the baroque period (1600–1750). Some chaconnes so closely resemble works given the title PAS-
SACAGLIAthat it is not clear exactly how the two
forms differ. Like the passacaglia, the chaconne consists of a series of variations, either on a har- monic pattern (a pattern of chords related to one another in a particular way), or on a constantly repeated bass pattern (see OSTINATO). The most
famous chaconne is that found in Bach’s Partita in D minor for solo violin; its thirty-two variations are based on a harmonic pattern.
chair organ See CHOIR ORGAN;POSITIVE ORGAN.
chalumeau (shàA lY mo¯′) French. See under
CLARINET.
chamber music Music for an instrumental group in which each part is played by a single instrument, as opposed to orchestral music, in which there may be numerous instruments to a part.
The different types of chamber music are distin- guished according to the number of performers: trio (three players), quartet (four), quintet (five), sextet (six), septet (seven), octet (eight), nonet (nine). Some authorities regard the sonata for one instru- ment (usually with piano accompaniment) as cham- ber music, but others feel that in such works the emphasis is on the individual instruments rather than on how they perform together. Moreover, in many sonatas the piano accompaniment is subordinate to the part played on the other instrument (violin, cello, flute, etc.), whereas the essence of chamber music is the equal importance of all the parts.
By far the most popular kind of chamber ensem- ble is the string quartet, which consists of two vio- lins (each playing its own part), a viola, and a cello. A string trio consists of one violin, a viola, and a cello; if the viola is replaced by a piano, the form is called a piano trio. Similarly, a string quintet con- sists of five stringed instruments (usually a string quartet plus a second viola or cello); if one of the stringed instruments is replaced by another instru- ment, such as a piano, horn, etc., the work is called a piano quintet, horn quintet, etc.
Chamber music is so called because originally it meant any music to be played outside the church, and it included both vocal and instrumental music. The old meaning persists in that chamber music is usually more intimate and personal than works of a larger scale, whether performed in a living room or in a concert hall. Although some of the sixteenth- and seventeenth-century forms (trio, sonata, ricer- car, and others) have most of the characteristics of chamber music, the modern repertory is usually considered to begin with the string quartets of Haydn and Mozart, written in the late eighteenth century. Among the finest nineteenth-century com- posers of chamber music are Beethoven, Schubert,
70 chamber opera
Mendelssohn, and Brahms. After 1900 chamber music has continued to attract many composers, among them Bartók, Debussy, Fauré, Hindemith, Schoenberg, Stravinsky, Webern, Shostakovitch, and Carter. (Outstanding examples of quartets, quintets, trios, etc., are mentioned in the respective articles on these forms.)
The term “chamber music” is also occasionally used for the large body of vocal part music in which there is one voice to a part and the parts have more or less equal importance, although to avoid confu- sion such music is generally called “vocal chamber music.” The literature ranges from examples of the earliest polyphony from medieval times to what many consider the outstanding form of vocal cham- ber music, the Renaissance MADRIGAL (def. 2), to
the vocal duets, trios, quartets, etc., of present-day composers. (See also DUET,QUARTET, etc.)
chamber opera An OPERA written for smaller
forces, both vocal and instrumental. Such operas are less expensive to mount and can be performed in smaller theaters. Among the earliest examples of chamber opera is Richard Strauss’s one-act Ariadne
auf Naxos (1912; in a later version a prologue was
added); it was written to follow a Molière comedy. The form attracted many composers during the first half of the twentieth century, among them Hin- demith, Stravinsky, Britten, and Birtwhistle. A more recent example is Thomas Adès’s Powder Her Face (1995).
chamber orchestra An orchestra of eighteen to forty players, as opposed to the hundred or so that make up a modern symphony orchestra. Before 1800 all orchestras were small, and today chamber orchestras frequently are used to perform orchestral music of earlier periods, as well as modern works written expressly for small groups. See also STRING ORCHESTRA.
Chambonnières (shà äN bôn yer′), Jacques
Champion de (zhà äk′ shà äN pyôN′ də), c.
1602–1672. A French composer and harpsi- chordist, the founder of the French school of harpsi- chord playing. Employed at the court of King Louis XIV, Chambonnières was the teacher of Jean-Henri
d’Anglebert (c. 1628–1691) and Louis Couperin (c. 1626–1661). He was also influential in Germany, where his style was imitated by Froberger and other composers of the time. His own compositions for harpsichord rank among the finest of the period.
chance music See ALEATORY MUSIC.
change ringing A system for ringing a set of tuned bells, called a peal, in a constantly varying sequence, so that no bell shifts by more than one step of the scale and the order is not repeated until the entire series of notes has been sounded. Origi- nating in the Church of England during the seven- teenth century and still very popular in Great Britain, change ringing involves peals ranging from three to twelve bells, which are usually tuned to all or part of a diatonic scale. Hand bells also may be used in this way.
changing tone See CAMBIATA, def. 1.
chanson (shà äN sôN′) French. 1 A French word
for SONG. 2 A type of polyphonic song (with several
voice-parts) that was popular in the fifteenth and six- teenth centuries. It usually has a French text, which may concern practically any subject but most often treats of love. The early Renaissance composers wrote mostly chansons in one of the FORMES FIXES
for one or two voices and instruments. Later Renais- sance chansons are often in a free form with an imi- tative, four-part texture, and some of these were for unaccompanied voices.
chansonnier (shà äNsôNnya¯′)French. 1 A manu-
script collection of songs of the thirteenth-century troubadours and trouvères (see TROUBADOUR;TROU-
VÈRE). 2 A manuscript containing fifteenth-century polyphonic chansons (see CHANSON, def. 2) and
other vocal compositions. See also under LIED, def.
2. 3 A singer-songwriter, especially of satirical topi- cal songs.
chant (chà ant). 1 Also, plainchant, plainsong. The
music of various Christian churches. This music is unaccompanied and monophonic (with only one voice-part). See also AMBROSIAN CHANT, BYZAN-
chevalet, au 71
TINE CHANT, and GREGORIAN CHANT. 2 In the Angli- can churches, the music to which psalms and canti- cles are sung, which is not monophonic but in four- part harmony (see ANGLICAN CHANT). 3 (shà äN). A
French word for SONG. 4 (shà äN). A French word for singing. 5 (shà äN). A French word for VOICE. 6 See
JEWISH CHANT.
chanter (chà an′tər). 1 Also, chaunter (chà ôn′tər). In a BAGPIPE, the pipe with finger holes, on which the melody is played. 2 See CANTOR, def. 2.
chantey (shà an′te¯, chà an′te¯) pl. chanteys Also,
chanty, pl. chanties. Another spelling for SHANTY.
chanty Another word for SHANTY.
Charleston (chà ärlz′ tən). A popular American dance of the 1920s. Its name comes from a song with that title composed by James P. Johnson and Cecil Mack for the musical comedy Runnin’ Wild (1923). It is in rapid tempo and characterized by a basic rhythmic feature that creates an odd synco- pated effect:
chaunter (chà ôn′tər). Another word for CHANTER, def. 1.
Chausson (shào¯ sôN′), Ernest (âr nest′), 1855–1899. A French composer who is remembered for a small number of compositions, chief among them Poème (1897) for violin and orchestra. A pupil of Jules Massenet and César Franck, Chausson developed a style that shows the influence of both Franck and Wagner, especially in his treatment of harmony. His other works include the Symphony in B-flat major, several operas, chamber music, and many fine art songs.
Chávez (chà ä′ves), Carlos (kär′los), 1899–1978.
A Mexican composer who became the most impor- tant figure in his country’s musical life. He founded Mexico’s first symphony orchestra, which he also conducted; he served as director of the National
Conservatory, which he reformed completely; and he made a point of performing Mexican music in his many appearances as a conductor abroad. Chávez’s early music combines elements of native Mexican music—both of the original Indian music and that influenced by Spain during its long rule of Mex- ico—with a rhythmically strong and dissonant style. In his later works, especially those in symphonic form, he returned to a more traditional romantic style. His works include six symphonies, ballets, choral music, chamber music, an opera, and many piano compositions.
chazzan (KHà ä zän′) pl. chazzanim (KHà ä zä ne¯m′). The Hebrew name for CANTOR(def. 1).
Cherubini (ke′′roo— be¯′ne¯), Luigi (loo— e¯′je¯), 1760–1842. An Italian composer who lived mostly in Paris and wrote more than more than forty operas as well as a great deal of church music (Masses, cantatas, motets, etc.). Although Cheru- bini had considerable influence as a teacher at the Paris Conservatory and was much admired by his contemporaries, including Beethoven, his music is less often performed today. Perhaps his best opera is Les deux journées (“The Two Days”; an English version is entitled The Water-Carrier); it is a “res- cue opera,” (in which the hero is rescued at the last minute from a dire fate; see RESCUE OPERA). Out- standing among his other operas is Médée (“Medea”). Of Cherubini’s church music, which shows superb mastery of counterpoint, his Mass in F is the single best work. Cherubini also wrote a symphony, chamber music (sonatas, string quartets, etc.) and a book on counterpoint.
chest of viols Another name for consort of viols. It was so called because at one time a matched set of viols was kept in a special box or chest. See under
VIOL.
chest voice See under VOICE.
chevalet, au (o¯′′shà ə vAla¯′)French. A direction to bow the strings of a violin or other stringed instru- ment at a point very close to or over the bridge, pro- ducing a nasal, brittle tone.
72 chiaramente
chiaramente (kyä′′rä men′te) Italian. A direc- tion to perform clearly and distinctly.
chiesa, sonata da See under SONATA. Child ballad See under BALLAD, def. 1.
chimes (chà ı¯mz). 1 Also, orchestral chimes, tubu-
lar chimes, tubular bells. A percussion instrument
used in the orchestra. It consists of a set of hollow metal tubes (usually eighteen in number) that hang in a frame and are struck with a mallet. They are ordinarily tuned chromatically, sounding all the half tones from middle C to the F two octaves above, and there is a damping mechanism, usually pedal-
operated, to silence them. There also is an electronic version of tubular chimes, which produce a greatly amplified sound like that of large church bells (used in the operas Tosca and Boris Godunov, and elsewhere). Chimes are generally used whenever the score calls for the sound of bells, as, for exam- ple, in the fifth movement of Berlioz’s Symphonie
fantastique (“Fantastic Symphony”). 2 Another
word for bells (see BELL, def. 1). 3 Another name for
GLOCKENSPIEL. 4 Another name for CARILLON, def. 1. 5 Another name for BELL CHIME.
ch’in (chà e¯n). Another spelling of CHYN. Chinese block See WOOD BLOCK.
chitarra (ke¯ tär′rä). The Italian word for GUITAR. chitarrone (ke¯ tär rô′ne) Italian. 1 A bass guitar. 2 In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, a large
LUTE, more than five feet long and sometimes as
long as six and one-half feet. It had eleven to sixteen melody courses (strings), often single but sometimes double (in pairs), and usually eight strings that did not pass over the fingerboard and provided only sin- gle bass notes. The chitarrone was developed along with a some-what shorter bass lute, the THEORBO, to provide accompaniments for singing and in instru- mental works, often playing the CONTINUO part in
baroque music.
chiuso (kyoo— ′zô) Italian: “closed.” 1 A direction for horn players to stop their instrument, that is, to insert a hand in the bell to muffle its tone or alter its pitch (see FRENCH HORN; STOPPING, def. 2). 2 A direction for singers to hum, with the mouth closed.
choir (kwı¯ər). 1 A group of singers, most often a group that performs in church. 2 The part of the church where the singers are seated. 3 A shortening of CHOIR ORGAN. 4 Also, section. A group of related
instruments, such as the brass instruments (brass choir), woodwind instruments (wood-wind choir), or stringed instruments (string choir).
choirbook See under SCORE.
choir organ The British name for the POSITIVE ORGAN, which is played from the third manual (key-
board) of the organ. The name comes from chair
organ (in German, Rückpositif, “back positive”),
which was actually a small separate organ, origi- nally played by itself and later placed behind the organist’s seat in a separate case. Choir organs were used from the fifteenth to the eighteenth centuries. In time, however, they became enclosed in the main
fig. 56 p/u from p. 76 fig. 55 p/u from p. 76
chorale Mass 73
instrument. In some modern organs there may be both a positive organ and a choir organ, the former incorporated in the main case and the latter in a sep- arate case of its own, as in earlier times.
C-hole ASOUND HOLEin the shape of a C.
Chopin (shà ô paN′), Frédéric (fra¯ da¯ re¯k′),
1810–1849. A Polish composer and pianist, remembered both for his romantic life and for his highly individual compositions for piano, which have had a lasting influence on music for that instrument. A child prodigy, Chopin became a famous pianist, performing all over Europe, but mostly in salons rather than concert halls. He never married but had a number of stormy love affairs, including one with a Frenchwoman, the novelist George Sand. His two hundred or so compositions for piano include études (studies), nocturnes (short reflective pieces), two sonatas, two piano concer- tos, ballades, preludes, and dances (especially mazurkas, waltzes, and polonaises). Although his rhythms often are those of Polish folk music, Chopin never actually used folk tunes. His music is particularly notable for unusual harmonies and sweet, songlike melodies (most of which cannot actually be sung because they include wide inter- vals and have ranges exceeding that of the human voice).
choral 1 (kôr′əl). Pertaining to music sung by a