Propiedades Acústicas

Source of data of the DTM were contour lines of maps in the scale of 1 : 100 000 were digitized by the software package ArcInfo Version 5.2 software package (ESRI 1995a).

These maps of rather low scale have been the only available source for data on elevation within the study area. The elevation rises towards the south going from 300to 400 m up to about 700 to 750 m above sea level. The northeast trending mountain ridges of the Southern Palmyrides reaches elevations of about 1000 to 1100 m a.sl. Most of the wadis (flow courses) have flat valleys (e.g. Wadi at Luwazah), some of them are more deeply incised (up to 80 m) such as the one nearby Al Basiri blocked by the Kharbaquah dam built within the 2nd century.

One of the possibilities for calculating a DTM are based on the Delaunay triangulation where the different points of similar elevation are connected through an irregular network.

Advantages of the Delaunay-Triangulation are the possibility for determination of volumes. Also fault lines could be taken into account. Irregularities in measurements of altrimetry could not be filtered. Especially in the flat areas of the project area the approximation of flat triangles would be too inaccurate. The current DTM (Fig. B-9) was calculated using the TOPOGRID function of ArcInfo, Version 7.2.1 (ESRI 1998a). The TOPOGRID function incorporates different powerful features: the interpolation of elevation from contour lines is based on identifying lines of steepest descent between contours. Points of maximum curvature are determined since they represent drainage paths and ridges (Hutchinson 1996). The algorithm is based on an iterative finite difference interpolation method, where areas of local maximum in each contour are calculated. A thin plate spline algorithm (Wahba 1990) is incorporated allowing incorporation of ridges and streams. This method results in a DTM with a continued surface often created from interpolation methods such as Kriging. Kraus (2000a) showed that Kriging could be described with a multiquadratic algorithm. This algorithm calculates a DTM with regularly spaced grid sets where information on drainage paths can be included. Compared to TIN, the accuracy in elevation of DTM calculated by TOPOGRID is similar (Wise 1998).

Drainage paths were digitized on the screen according to Landsat Thematic Mapper images of April 1994 and 1995 and were included in one of the TOPOGRID calculations.

To test the automatic extraction of the drainage network, two grids were calculated: one incorporating the digitized information on drainage channels and another grid without this additional information. In some cases the automatic extraction and the digitized drainage network fits well although the accuracy of the topographic maps is low.

4.2.3 Slope

The grid derived from the TOPOGRID function was used to calculate the slopes for the region (Fig. 4.8). Slope classes of over 40 to 50% only occur to a smaller amount within the mountain ridges such as Jabel an Niqniqiyah or incised drainage courses in the southern part. Classes in the range from 0 to 1 % are predominant, covering an area of about 9100 km², which means one half of the whole area. Since the resolution of the grid is low, slope may fall in reality to higher classes. The comparison of different resolutions of DTM of an area at the research sites of the Walnut Gulch watershed in south-western Arizona (Goodrich et al. 1994) and watersheds in Oregon and California (Zhang &

Montgomery 1994) illustrated that with lower resolution the slopes are smoothed, since the small variations are averaged to the larger cells. Zhang & Montgomery (1994) reported a declination of mean slopes from 0.65 for a 2 m size to 0.45 for a 90 m grid DTM.

Fig. 4.8 Slope, based on DTM calculated on contours of 1 : 100 000 maps (Source:

Cartographic Department, S.A.R. 1976)

88 4.2 Topographic features and their influence on runoff generation

Table 4.4 Slope classes within the research area (Source: Cartographic Department 1976)

Slope (%) Area (km²) Percentage (%)

0 - 1 9193 66.5

2 - 3 2285 16.5

3 - 5 906 6.5

5 - 10 775 5.6

10 - 15 272 1.9

15 - 20 171 1.2

20 - 30 166 1.2

> 30 52 0.4

Sum 13824 100

Therefore the DTM loses its ability to resolve the slope characteristics of especially more dissected topography with increasing size of the raster cells of DTM. The vertical resolution of the DTM is low, since it is derived from digitized contours 10 m apart and 5 m apart within the flatter areas. Since also geodetical points of elevation were digitized and introduced in the interpolation process the vertical resolution is higher, especially in the flatter areas.

Considering the aspect of slopes, only small maxima of slope are exposed either to the northeast or the northwest (Fig. 4.9). Photogrammetric work on aerial images that are unfortunately not accessible to the public in Syria due to political and military constraints, would provide further information on topographic features.

Fig. 4.9 Slope classes for the southeastern part of the study area according to the 100 m-DTM (Source: Cartographic Department, S.A.R. 1976)

4.2.4 Curvature

The curvature is calculated on the same algorithm as the aspect. The planiform curvature provides information on the convergence and divergence of flow. The profile curvature was not calculated since the information on flow acceleration or deceleration is more important to the point of view of sediment transport and erosion modeling.

4.2.5 Aspect

Aspect is one of the topographic features correlated with the insulation effect. It is important for evapotranspiration since the amount of solar insulation is higher on slopes facing south or southwest. Wang & Takahashi (1999) found higher soil moisture content on north facing slopes within the semi-arid loess plateau (China) than on south facing slopes. They calculated the evapotranspiration based on solar radiation, altitude and azimuth of the sun. The results confirmed the expectation: on northfacing slopes the

0 - 1 % 2 - 3 % 3 - 5 % 5 - 10 % 10 - 15 % 15 - 20 % 20 - 30 % > 30

Slope 0

2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000

Area km2

90 4.2 Topographic features and their influence on runoff generation

amount of evapotranspiration is higher than on south facing slopes. Therefore the potential to runon areas for water harvesting is generally higher on north facing slopes. At least, the soil water within the profile is less than on north facing slopes.

The aspect function within ArcInfo version 7.2.1 (ESRI 1998a) determines the downslope direction of maximum rate of change of the cell to its neighbours. The aspect is calculated on the basis of the algorithm of Zeverbergen & Thorne (1987), fitting partial quantic equation to nine points within a 3×3 window (Fig. 4.10).

The slopes are quite equally distributed concerning the aspect. A clear distinct maximum of aspect values can not be distinguished, about 20% of the area is occupied by northwestfacing slopes (Table 4.5).

Table 4.5 Aspect classes (Source: Cartographic Department, S.A.R. 1976)

Aspect (Degrees) Area (km²) Percentage (%)

226 - 270 8.68 6.28

181 - 225 11.96 8.65

271 - 315 14.28 10.33

46 - 90 17.51 12.66

136 - 180 18.23 13.19

91 - 135 18.94 13.70

0 - 45 22.22 16.07

316 - 360 26.42 19.11

Sum 138.24 100

Fig. 4.10 Aspect values (ESRI 1998a)