Propiedades mecánicas

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back his lands in Germany, while the Spanish wanted their allies the Habsburgs in power so that they could cross Europe with ease in their hoped-for attack on the Netherlands. France, fearful of being surrounded by the Habsburgs and their allies, continued to try to reduce imperial power.

The end and the aftermath

By the 1640s, anti-imperial forces were regaining the upper hand. France defeated Spain at Rocroi in the Oise valley in 1643, while in 1645, Sweden met the imperial army at Junkau, southeast of Prague. Around half the 16,000-strong imperial army was killed in this bloody battle, and it looked as if the Swedes would march on Prague or Vienna. However by this point, both sides were exhausted, and no advance was made on either city.

The battles of the Thirty Years’ War were conducted on a large scale. Forces of thousands came

together in cavalry charges backed up by firearms, and large numbers of mercenaries were employed. The battles were fought with professional speed and ruthlessness, but what came after was sometimes even worse. Vast armies committed infamous atrocities as they pillaged huge areas of country to find food, and removed anything that might be useful to their enemies. Rural areas suffered particularly badly at the hands of the scavenging troops—Germany lost around 20 percent of its population—but trade and manufacturing were also affected by the damage and devastation left behind. Central Europe took decades to recover from the war, although countries with strong trade networks and sea power, such as England and the Netherlands, fared better.

Repeated artillery battles also wore down both armies. Exhausted, the sides eventually came together to make peace.

THE EARLY MODERN ERA

Representatives of the empire, Spain, France, Sweden, and the Dutch Republic, as well as rulers of German princedoms and cities, and other interested parties, assembled in 1648 in two north- German cities, Osnabrück and Münster, to agree the Peace of Westphalia. The talks could not resolve basic differences between political and religious interests; they did however produce an agreement to end the war, and the Peace established an overall balance of power among a number of independent nations.

Although Europe was now permanently divided into states that were predominantly Catholic or predominantly Protestant, they had agreed to learn to coexist with one another. The Peace set the precedent of creating agreements between nations by means of high- level diplomatic meetings, the like of which have played a key part in international relations ever since. ■

As different powers intervened in the Thirty Years' War, the conflict morphed from a split over religion into a clash for European supremacy between France and the Habsburgs.

Campaigns Key France Poland Austria 1625 1635 1619 1630 1625 Ottoman Empire Denmark Rome Spain Austria invades Bohemia and

Frederick V’s territory in Germany.

Denmark intervenes to help

Lutherans in northern Germany.

Sweden begins a campaign against

Catholic forces in Germany.

France declares war against Habsburg

Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. Protestant majority

Catholic majority

Sweden

Religious divisions

back his lands in Germany, while the Spanish wanted their allies the Habsburgs in power so that they could cross Europe with ease in their hoped-for attack on the Netherlands. France, fearful of being surrounded by the Habsburgs and their allies, continued to try to reduce imperial power.

The end and the aftermath

By the 1640s, anti-imperial forces were regaining the upper hand. France defeated Spain at Rocroi in the Oise valley in 1643, while in 1645, Sweden met the imperial army at Junkau, southeast of Prague. Around half the 16,000-strong imperial army was killed in this bloody battle, and it looked as if the Swedes would march on Prague or Vienna. However by this point, both sides were exhausted, and no advance was made on either city.

The battles of the Thirty Years’ War were conducted on a large scale. Forces of thousands came

together in cavalry charges backed up by firearms, and large numbers of mercenaries were employed. The battles were fought with professional speed and ruthlessness, but what came after was sometimes even worse. Vast armies committed infamous atrocities as they pillaged huge areas of country to find food, and removed anything that might be useful to their enemies. Rural areas suffered particularly badly at the hands of the scavenging troops—Germany lost around 20 percent of its population—but trade and manufacturing were also affected by the damage and devastation left behind. Central Europe took decades to recover from the war, although countries with strong trade networks and sea power, such as England and the Netherlands, fared better.

Repeated artillery battles also wore down both armies. Exhausted, the sides eventually came together to make peace.

Representatives of the empire, Spain, France, Sweden, and the Dutch Republic, as well as rulers of German princedoms and cities, and other interested parties, assembled in 1648 in two north- German cities, Osnabrück and Münster, to agree the Peace of Westphalia. The talks could not resolve basic differences between political and religious interests; they did however produce an agreement to end the war, and the Peace established an overall balance of power among a number of independent nations.

Although Europe was now permanently divided into states that were predominantly Catholic or predominantly Protestant, they had agreed to learn to coexist with one another. The Peace set the precedent of creating agreements between nations by means of high- level diplomatic meetings, the like of which have played a key part in international relations ever since. ■

As different powers intervened in the Thirty Years' War, the conflict morphed from a split over religion into a clash for European supremacy between France and the Habsburgs.

Campaigns Key France Poland Austria 1625 1635 1619 1630 1625 Ottoman Empire Denmark Rome Spain Austria invades Bohemia and

Frederick V’s territory in Germany.

Denmark intervenes to help

Lutherans in northern Germany.

Sweden begins a campaign against

Catholic forces in Germany.

France declares war against Habsburg

Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. Protestant majority

Catholic majority

Sweden

Religious divisions

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