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The concept of demonic witchcraft accumulated within the historical context of overlapping sceptical crises, yet the inherent adaptability of demonological argumentation allowed it to absorb and neutralize objections, since doubt was already integral to its premises. As a result, although individuals often maintained fixed, dogmatic positions on the reality of witchcraft phenomena, consistency was not inevitable. Conversion from one extreme to the other was possible, while vacillation was not unusual. Tales of sceptics who were converted to belief in spirit possession and necromancy had been told in the third person several centuries before the formation of witchcraft concepts, as the examples in Caesarius of Heisterbach show. Putative real-life conversions are frequently

mentioned in witchcraft treatises, usually involving eyewitnesses of sabbaths and other wonders. But few conversions were as rationally motivated as the fictional Apistius’ in Pico’s Strix.

(p. 120) The opposite trajectory, from belief to scepticism, is dominated by the example of Alonso de Salazar Frías, an inquisitor whose investigations in the first two decades of the 1600s led him to contest over two thousand confessions, both by investigating the circumstantial details of alleged confessions and by testing empirically the effects of witches’ ointments. Convinced of widespread delusion among defendants and their abusive treatment by inquisitors, Salazar insisted that the terms of debate move from what the devil was theoretically capable of doing to what demonstrably happened in individual circumstances.

Finally, there is evidence of vacillation throughout the period, particularly in first-person accounts. The poet Tasso is particularly instructive. In his epic poem Jerusalem Delivered (1575/81), he mentioned the trysts of witches and demons as a common belief. His own literary theory allowed Tasso license to represent religious concepts as factual without being convinced of their truth. But when his personal religious crisis deepened, his philosophical dialogues followed the trajectory of Gianfrancesco Pico, initially representing witches as delusional (c.1580) but later as the sexual partners of incubus demons (1587). More bluntly than Pico’s Strix, Tasso’s philosophical dialogue, The Messenger, betrays the author’s struggle to convince himself; it reveals an ongoing resistance to scepticism rather than a conversion to serene belief.

While witchcraft controversies took place in an era of sceptical crises, philosophical scepticism cannot be shown to have had an appreciable effect on the decline of witch-hunting. Evidence accumulated since the 1960s shows that reasoned discourse effected far less change than social factors, such as difficulties in obtaining convictions and the emotional exhaustion of participants in the prosecutorial process. As Stuart Clark concludes, ‘the incessant raising of questions’ about reasons for the decline ‘has not yet been matched by the finding of good answers’.

Notes:

(1) Henricus Institoris, Malleus Maleficarum, ed. and tr. Christopher S. Mackay, 2 vols (Cambridge, 2006), ii, 202–

10.

(2) Richard Kieckhefer, Magic in the Middle Ages (Cambridge, 1989).

(3) David Keck, Angels and Angelology in the Middle Ages (New York, 1998); Walter Stephens, Demon Lovers:

Witchcraft, Sex, and the Crisis of Belief (Chicago, 2002), 58–81.

(4) Richard Popkin, The History of Scepticism from Savonarola to Bayle (3rd edn, Oxford, 2003), pp. xvii–16. A single mention of witchcraft occurs on p. 184, in a discussion of Glanvill. See also Brian P. Copenhaver and Charles

B. Schmitt, Renaissance Philosophy (Oxford, 1992), 196–284, and Charles G. Nauert, Jr, Agrippa and the Crisis of Renaissance Thought (Urbana, IL, 1965), 194–221.

(5) Michael Bailey, Battling Demons: Witchcraft, Heresy, and Reform in the Late Middle Ages (University Park, PA, 2003).

(6) Popkin, History of Scepticism, 55.

(7) Ronald G. Witt, In the Footsteps of the Ancients: The Origins of Humanism from Lovato to Bruni (Leiden, 2003), 81–229.

(8) Jill Kraye, ‘Philologists and Philosophers’, in The Cambridge Companion to Renaissance Humanism (Cambridge, 1996), 153–6; Anthony Grafton, ‘All Coherence Gone’, in Anthony Grafton, April Shelford, and Nancy Siraisi, eds, New Worlds, Ancient Texts: The Power of Tradition and the Shock of Discovery (Cambridge, MA, 1992), 95–157;

Grafton, ‘A Bound World: The Scholar’s Cosmos’, in Grafton, Shelford, and Siraisi, eds, New Worlds, Ancient Texts, 11–58.

(9) Popkin, History of Scepticism, 16. See Luciano Floridi, ‘The Rediscovery and Posthumous Influence of Scepticism’, in Richard Bett, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Ancient Scepticism (Cambridge, 2010), 267–87.

(10) Charles B. Schmitt, Gianfrancesco Pico della Mirandola (1469–1533) and his Critique of Aristotle (The Hague, 1967); Anna De Pace, La scepsi, il sapere, e l’anima: Dissonanze nella cerchia laurenziana (Milan, 2002); Gian Mario Cao, Gianfrancesco Pico as a Reader of Sextus Empiricus: With a Facing Text of Pico’s Quotations from Sextus (Pisa, 2007).

(11) Stuart Clark, Thinking with Demons: The Idea of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe (Oxford, 1997), 195.

(12) Clark, Thinking with Demons, 203.

(13) Clark, Thinking with Demons, 271–5; Stephens, Demon Lovers, 300–14.

(14) Clark, Thinking with Demons, 151–214.

(15) Jean Vinet (Vineti), Tractatus contra demonum invocatores (Cologne, c.1487), sig. a3r–a4r. See also

Stephens, Demon Lovers, 25; Martine Ostorero, ‘Vinet, Jean (Vineti, Johannes) (d. ca. 1470)’, in Richard M. Golden, ed., Encyclopedia of Witchcraft: The Western Tradition (Santa Barbara, CA, 2006), iv, 1169–70. The definitive treatment of Vinet is now Martine Ostorero, Le Diable au sabbat: Littérature démonologique et sorcellerie (1440–

1460) (Florence, 2011), 79–115, 251–96, 417–50.

(16) Institoris, Malleus Maleficarum, ii, 44–5.

(17) Stephens, Demon Lovers, 73–9, 318–31.

(18) Caesarius of Heisterbach, The Dialogue on Miracles, tr. Henry von Essen Scott and Charles Cooke Swinton Bland, 2 vols (London, 1929), ii, 314–17; Stephens, Demon Lovers, 349–52.

(19) Pietro Pomponazzi, De incantationibus, ed. Vittoria Perrone Compagni (Florence, 2011), 105–6; see also Stephens, Demon Lovers, 77–9.

(20) Agostino Steuco, De perenni philosophia (1540; repr. New York, 1972), 460–1; Andrea Cesalpino, Dæmonum investigatio peripatetica, in qua explicatur locus Hippocratis in Progn: ‘Si quid divinum in morbis habetur’

(Florence, 1580). See Stephens, Demon Lovers, 73–80, 302–8, 346–7.

(21) Witches, Devils, and Doctors in the Renaissance: Johann Weyer, De Praestigiis daemonum, ed. George Mora (Binghamton, NY, 1991), 3.

(22) Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa von Nettesheim, Three Books of Occult Philosophy, ed. Donald Tyson (St Paul, MN, 2004), 518–20. The first book was begun in 1510.

(23) Walter Stephens, ‘“Habeas Corpus”: Demonic Bodies in Ficino, Psellus, and Malleus maleficarum’, in Julia

Hairston and Walter Stephens, eds, The Body in Early Modern Italy (Baltimore, MD, 2010), 74–91.

(24) Stephens, Demon Lovers, 58–86.

(25) Ambrogio Vignati [Ambrosius de Vignate], Tractatus de hæreticis, 215–27, in Joseph Hansen, ed., Quellen und Untersuchungen zur Geschichte des Hexenwahns und Hexenverfolgung im Mittelalters (Bonn, 1901), 219;

quoted in Stephens, Demon Lovers, 58.

(26) Stephens, ‘“Habeas Corpus”’.

(27) Torquato Tasso, Il messaggiero, in Dialoghi, ed. Giovanni Baffetti, 2 vols (Milan, 1998), i, 309–83 ; Henry More, An Antidote against Atheisme (London, 1653); Joseph Glanvill, Sadducismus Triumphatus (London, 1681);

The Journal of the Rev. John Wesley, ed. Nehemiah Curnock, 8 vols (London, 1909–16), v, 265, for 1768; cf. v, 375; Stephens, Demon Lovers, 366–7.

(28) John Webster, The Displaying of Supposed Witchcraft (London, 1677), excerpt in Brian P. Levack, ed., The Witchcraft Sourcebook (London, 2004), 307–11; Thomas Hobbes, Leviathan (London, 1651), excerpt in Alan Charles Kors and Edward Peters, eds, Witchcraft in Europe 400–1700: A Documentary History (2nd edn,

Philadelphia, PA, 2001), 419–25; Baruch Spinoza, God, Man, and His Well-Being (c.1660), pt. 2, ch. 25, excerpt in Levack, Witchcraft Sourcebook, 305–6; Balthasar Bekker, Le Monde enchanté, 4 vols (Amsterdam, 1691), in Kors and Peters, eds, Witchcraft in Europe, 429–35, quote at 424. See Michaela Valente, ‘La critica alla caccia alle streghe da Johann Wier a Balthasar Bekker’, in Dinora Corsi and Matteo Duni, eds, ‘Non lasciar vivere la malefica’:

le streghe nei trattati e nei processi (secoli XIV–XVII) (Florence, 2008), 67–82.

(29) Girolamo Menghi, Compendio dell’arte essorcistica, et possibilità delle mirabili, et stupende operationi delli demoni et de i malefici (1576; repr. Genoa, 1987). See Walter Stephens, ‘Experiments and Tests’, in Encyclopedia of Witchcraft, ii, 340–2.

(30) Georges Minois, The Atheist’s Bible: The Most Dangerous Book that Never Existed, tr. Lys Ann Weiss (Chicago, 2012).

(31) Copenhaver and Schmitt, Renaissance Philosophy, 176–84.

(32) Institoris, Malleus Maleficarum, ii, 167.

(33) Desiderius Erasmus, De libero arbitrio diatribe sive collatio (1524), in E. Gordon Rupp and Philip S. Watson, eds, Luther and Erasmus: Free Will and Salvation (Philadelphia, PA, 1969), 33–97.

(34) Weyer, Witches, Devils, and Doctors, 81.

(35) Michaela Valente, ‘Cassini (Cassinis) Samuel de (ca. 1450–post 1510)’, in Encyclopedia of Witchcraft, i, 173.

(36) Institoris, Malleus Maleficarum, ii, 167, 168–79.

(37) Weyer, Witches, Devils, and Doctors, 82.

(38) Text of the canon Episcopi in Kors and Peters, eds, Witchcraft in Europe, 60–7; Hugh of St Victor, John of Salisbury, and other medieval quoters of the canon are in Kors and Peters, eds, Witchcraft in Europe, 67–78. A compendious history of attempts to refute the canon Episcopi is in Ostorero, Le Diable au sabbat, 567–732.

(39) Johannes Nider, Formicarius (Cologne, 1480; repr. Graz, 1971), sig. e4r; Alonso Tostado, Alonsi Thostati Episcopi Abulensis hispani a se edita super genesim commentaria (Venice, 1507), fol. 125r. On both, see Stephens, Demon Lovers, 145–57.

(40) Jacopo Passavanti, Lo specchio della vera penitenza, tr. in Kors and Peters, eds, Witchcraft in Europe, 105–

11; see Stephens, Demon Lovers, 132–4.

(41) Nicolas Jacquier, Flagellum hæreticorum fascinariorum, in Hansen, ed., Quellen und Untersuchungen, 133–45 at 138–9 (excerpt in English in Kors and Peters, eds, Witchcraft in Europe, 171–2); Vinet, Tractatus, sig. b1r (English trans. in Stephens, Demon Lovers, 135–6); Giordano da Bergamo, Quæstio de strigis, in Hansen, ed.,

Quellen, 195–200 at 198 (Stephens, Demon Lovers, 136–7); Bartolomeo Spina, Quadruplex apologia contra Ponzinibium, in Quæstio de strigibus, una cum tractatu de præeminentia sacræ theologiæ et quadruplici apologia de lamiis contra Ponzinibium (1523; repr. Rome, 1576), 160–1 (English trans. in Stephens, Demon Lovers, 153–4).

(42) Institoris, Malleus Maleficarum, ii, 244–54; Stephens, Demon Lovers, 140–2.

(43) Ulrich Müller, De lanijs et phitonicis mulieribus, in Jörg Mauz, ed., Ulrich Molitoris: Schriften, (Konstanz, 1997), 63–132 at 80–3; Stephens, Demon Lovers, 139–40.

(44) Jean Bodin, Démonomanie des sorciers (partial English trans. in Randy A. Scott, On the Demon-Mania of Witches (Toronto, 2001). On Gianfrancesco Pico see Alfredo Perifano, ‘Introduction’, in Gianfrancesco Pico della Mirandola, La Sorcière: dialogue en trois livres sur la tromperie des démons, ed. Alfredo Perifano (Turnhout, 2007), 5–33; Stephens, Demon Lovers, 87–99; Stephens, ‘Gianfrancesco Pico e la paura dell’immaginazione: dallo scetticismo alla stregoneria’, Rinascimento, 2nd. ser., 43 (2003), 49–74.

(45) Gianfrancesco Pico della Mirandola, Dialogus in tres libros divisus: Titulus est Strix (Bologna, 1523), sigs.

F2v–3r; see La Sorcière: dialogue en trois livres sur la tromperie des démons, ed. Alfredo Perifano (Turnhout, 2007), 94–5; English trans. in Stephens, Demon Lovers, 234–5.

(46) Gianfrancesco Pico, Libro detto Strega, o delle illusioni del demonio (1524), ed. Albano Biondi (Venice, 1989). A second Italian translation of Strix by Turino Turini was printed in 1555 (La strega, overo de gli inganni de’

demoni, ed. Ida Li Vigni [Genoa, 1988]). A partial modern English trans. of Strix by Rod Boroughs is in The Renaissance in Europe: An Anthology, ed. Peter Elmer, Nick Webb, and Roberta Wood (New Haven, CT, 2000), 366–94.

(47) Pico, Libro detto Strega; Silvestro Mazzolini, Reverendi Patris F. Silvestri Prieriatis…De strigimagarum dæmonumque mirandis (1521; repr. Rome, 1575); Spina, Quæstio de strigibus, 91; Stephens, Demon Lovers, 87–

92.

(48) Gianfrancesco Pico della Mirandola, De imaginatione; text and trans. in Harry Caplan, ed., On the Imagination (Westport, CT, 1971), 56–7; see Walter Stephens, ‘Gianfrancesco Pico e la paura dell’immaginazione: dallo

scetticismo alla stregoneria’, Rinascimento, 2a serie, 43 (2003), 49–74.

(49) Gianfrancesco Pico della Mirandola, Examen vanitatis doctrinæ gentium et veritatis Christianæ disciplinæ, ii, 717–1264, in Joannes Franciscus Picus Mirandulanus opera omnia (1573; repr. Turin, 1972); see n. 10 above;

Popkin, History of Scepticism, 20–1. On scepticism and fideism, see Floridi, ‘The Rediscovery’, 278–82.

(50) Wesley, Journal, v, 265.

(51) Martine Ostorero, ‘Visconti, Girolamo (Hieronymus Vicecomes) (d. ca. 1478)’, in Encyclopedia of Witchcraft, iv, 1171–2; Astrid Estuardo Flaction, ‘Girolamo Visconti, un témoin du débat sur la réalité de la sorcellerie au XVe siècle en Italie du Nord’, in Martine Ostorero, Georg Modestin, and Kathrin Utz Tremp, eds, Chasses aux sorcières et démonologie: Entre discours et pratiques (XIV –XVII siècles) (Florence, 2010), 389–403; Ostorero, Le Diable au sabbat, 688–93.

(52) Girolamo Visconti, Lamiarum sive striarum opusculum (Milan, 1490), sig. 1v; Stephens, Demon Lovers, 137–8.

(53) Andrea Alciati, Parergon iuris libri 8.22, in Opera omnia (Lyon, 1544), ii, 406–8 (Italian trans. ed. S. Abbiati, 248–53, in S. Abbiati, A. Agnoletto and M.-R. Lazzati, eds, La stregoneria: Diavoli, streghe, inquisitori dal Trecento al Settecento (1984; repr. Milan, 1991); Matteo Duni, ‘Alciati, Andrea (1492–1550)’, in Encyclopedia of Witchcraft, i, 29–30.

(54) H. Sidkey, Witchcraft, Lycanthropy, Drugs, and Disease: An Anthropological Study of the European Witch-Hunts (New York, 1997).

(55) Spina, Quæstio de strigibus, 5, 82–5; this and other experiments are discussed in Stephens, Demon Lovers, 159–76, and Stephens, ‘Experiments and Tests’, in Encyclopedia of Witchcraft, ii, 340–2.

e e

(56) Giovanni Francesco Ponzinibio, De lamiis et excellentia iuris utriusque (1520), in Tractatus duo: Unus de sortilegis D. Pauli Grillandi…alter de lamiis et excellentia iuris utriusque D. Ioannis Francisci Ponzinibii

(Frankfurt, 1592); Spina, Tractatus de præeminentia, 91–2; Spina, Quadruplex apologia, Apologia prima, 133–53 (see n. 41 above); brief Italian trans. by Sergio Abbiati in Abbiati, et al., eds, La stregoneria, 264–5. See Dries Vanysacker, ‘Ponzinibio, Giovanni Francesco/Gianfrancesco (First Half of the Sixteenth Century)’, in Encyclopedia of Witchcraft, iii, 912–13.

(57) Edward Peters, Torture (New York, 1985). Excerpts from Spee and Thomasius are in Kors and Peters, eds, Witchcraft in Europe, 425–9, 444–8.

(58) Stephens, Demon Lovers, 145–79; D. P. Walker, Unclean Spirits: Possession and Exorcism in France and England in the Late Sixteenth Century (Philadelphia, PA, 1981); Sarah Ferber, Demonic Possession and Exorcism in Early Modern France (New York, 2004); Moshe Sluhovsky, Believe Not Every Spirit: Possession, Mysticism, and Discernment in Early Modern Catholicism (Chicago, 2007). Martine Ostorero, Le Diable au sabbat, 7–8, has shown that Nicolas Jacquier made the connection between possession and maleficium as early as 1452.

(59) Gustav Henningsen, The Witches’ Advocate: Basque Witchcraft and the Spanish Inquisition (Reno, NV, 1980); Gustav Henningsen, ed., The Salazar Documents: Alonso de Salazar Frías and Others on the Basque Witch Persecution (Leiden, 2004), excerpt in Kors and Peters, eds, Witchcraft in Europe, 407–19.

(60) Torquato Tasso, Gerusalemme liberata, canto 13, stanzas 4–12, ed. Lanfranco Caretti (Turin, 1979), 297–9;

Tasso, Il messaggiero, i, 309–83. See Stuart Clark, ‘Tasso and the Literature of Witchcraft’, in J. Salmons and W.

Moretti, eds, The Renaissance in Ferrara and its European Horizons (Cardiff, 1984), 3–21; Walter Stephens, ‘Tasso and the Witches’, Annali d’Italianistica, 12 (1994), 181–202; Stephens, ‘Tasso, Torquato (1544–1595)’, in

Encyclopedia of Witchcraft, iv, 1108–9.

(61) Clark, Thinking with Demons, 683; Brian P. Levack, ‘The Decline and End of Witchcraft Prosecutions’, in Bengt Ankarloo and Stuart Clark, eds, Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries

(London, 1999), 3–93.

Walter Stephens

Walter Stephens, is the Charles S. Singleton Professor of Italian Studies at Johns Hopkins University. He is the author of Giants in Those Days: Folklore, Ancient History, and Nationalism (1989), Demon Lovers: Witchcraft, Sex, and the Crisis of Belief (2002), and co-editor of The Body in Early Modern Italy (Baltimore, 2010). His articles on witchcraft and demonology appear in Encyclopedia of Witchcraft: The Western Tradition (Santa Barbara, 2006), The Encyclopedia of Religion (2nd edn, Detroit, 2005), A Cultural History of Sexuality in the Renaissance (2011), and other reference works.

Print Publication Date: Mar 2013 Subject: History, Early Modern History (1501 to 1700) Online Publication Date: May

2013

DOI: 10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199578160.013.0008

Witchcraft in Early Modern Literature

Diane Purkiss

The Oxford Handbook of Witchcraft in Early Modern Europe and Colonial America

Edited by Brian P. Levack

Oxford Handbooks Online

Abstract and Keywords

This article discusses witchcraft in early modern literature. It focuses on early modern drama to show how cultural narratives circulate between high and low, the low as capable of informing the high as vice versa, and how under-studied institutions such as the stage play a part in keeping key stories in motion long after theologians had ceased to promulgate them. All literary representations produced contemporaneously with the principal period of the witch-trials are informed by earlier literary texts, particularly classical literature and medieval romances.

Keywords: witchcraft, early modern drama, state play, classical literature, medieval romances, witch trials

WHILE historians plod through court records, writers like to chase shadowy fantasies in all their extreme variants.

Although Greek and Latin literature is fitfully in accord with the magical practices that surrounded it, medieval and Renaissance literature tends to select the most vivid aspects of witchcraft for detailed treatment. Only partially informed about the demonological context, only ever hazily aware of the trials it purports to treat, the early modern drama on which this chapter concentrates is of use to the historian of witchcraft because it shows how cultural narratives circulate between high and low—the low as capable of informing the high as vice versa—and how under-studied institutions like the stage play a part in keeping key stories in motion long after theologians cease to promulgate them. All literary representations produced contemporaneously with the principal period of the witch trials are informed by earlier literary texts, particularly classical literature and medieval romances.

Most literary criticism on witchcraft in the past twenty years has focused on well-known dramatic texts such as Macbeth, and has tried to measure them against surviving trial records, tending to assume a close

correspondence between dramatists and social contexts; the latter is usually still seen as a way of solving problems presented by the former. More detailed work on individual plays has shown that correspondences are often less close than anticipated. Most of the best recent work has approached witches and their representation in terms of gender. Authors, including Jonson, Herrick, and Milton, have been analysed by feminist critics in relation to their representations of gender through witch figures. Most work has been on drama. (p. 123) In 1995, Deborah Willis claimed that both well-known dramas and witch trials reflected a preoccupation with the problematic maternal body, a viewpoint which chimed with research by the present writer and with earlier work by Gail Kern Paster on the embarrassments of the body. New historicist feminist work by Karen Newman, Dympna Callaghan, and Frances Dolan has focused on the gender of the witch in texts by Shakespeare and others, examining witch trials alongside playtexts. More recently, Mary Ellen Lamb’s work has emphasized the awkward relations between popular culture as a quarry for plots and sensations and the dramatists who disdain it.

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