Propiedades químicas del suelo

We use the Sr, Nd, and Pb isotopic compositions of end-member lavas to further support melt source compositions, and elaborate on mechanisms by which the mantle lithosphere beneath the Tibetan Plateau would become metasomatized. ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd isotopic compositions of group A lavas fall along typical arc volcanic trends and lie close to primitive mantle values when considering samples with high MgO (>6 wt%) compositions (Figure 4.10). Group B lavas however, generally have ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr values above 0.71 and ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd values below 0.5120, compatible with a crustal origin of the isotopic signature. These isotopic compositions fall on a mixing line between primitive mantle values, and averages for Himalayan sediments. As Himalayan sediments represent the northern margin of India prior to collision, which was formed at the northern margin of Gondwana in Mesozoic time, we infer that metasomatism of the mantle beneath the Tibetan Plateau was generated by the subduction of sedimentary rocks deposited on the passive margin of the Indian subcontinent.

82

Figure 4.10 – Isotopic compositions for Tibetan lavas. Black lines on figure at left represent ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and ¹⁴³Nd/¹⁴⁴Nd of the primitive mantle. Light gray circles represent the median composition of Himalayan sediments, and dark grey circles the mean composition. Inset in right panel schematically depicts method of calculating delta values with respect to the Northern Hemisphere Reference Line (NHRL of Hart, 1984)

We provide an additional constraint on the generation of metasomatism beneath the Tibetan Plateau using Pb isotopes. In the northern hemisphere, mid-ocean ridge basalts (MORBs) show a distinct linear relationship in ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb vs ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb space and ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb vs ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb space, which is termed the northern hemisphere reference line (NHRL) (Hart, 1984). Continental crust and sediments generally lie above this line. We investigate Pb isotopes by first calculating the Δ7/4 and Δ8/4 values of samples which have been analyzed for ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb,²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb, and ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ratios.

The Δ7/4 value represents the difference between the observed ²⁰⁷Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ratio of a sample, and the

207Pb/²⁰⁴Pb of the NHRL at a ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ratio identical to that measured in the sample (Hart, 1984;

Figure 7). Similarly, the Δ8/4 value is the difference between the ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ratio of a sample, and the ²⁰⁸Pb/²⁰⁴Pb of the NHRL at the sample’s ²⁰⁶Pb/²⁰⁴Pb ratio (Hart, 1984). Group B lavas have generally high Δ7/4 and Δ8/4 values (above 15 and 100, respectively). These require input of old highly radiogenic continental crust and/or sediments, such as those from the passive margin of the northern Indian subcontinent, into the mantle source region of the lavas. However, the Δ7/4 and Δ8/4 values of group B lavas are higher than those of Himalayan sediments, suggesting an additional highly radiogenic and therefore older source. Δ7/4 and Δ8/4 values of lavas in the central, and northern Tibetan Plateau are lower than that of those in the southern Tibetan Plateau, indicating a lower contribution of continental sediments into their mantle source regions.

83 4.4.5 Summary of Interpretations

Major, trace and isotopic compositions of lavas in the Tibetan plateau constrain melt source compositions, and the geodynamic drivers of magmatism. Prior to 40 Ma lavas were produced during subduction and arc volcanism, while lavas erupted since 30 Ma were generated by low-degree melting of a metasomatized mantle lithosphere. Metasomatism of the mantle lithosphere or thin mantle wedge beneath the Tibetan Plateau likely occurred between 30 and 40 Ma, as a consequence of the incorporation of sediments from the northern margin of India into the mantle, and migration of partial melts and/or fluids through the mantle lithosphere.

4.5 Discussion and Geodynamic Interpretation

We interpret the geodynamic evolution of the Indo-Asian orogen based on the timing and compositions of lavas from the Tibetan Plateau, and the distribution of faulting. We discuss specific

~10-15 Ma time windows in which we describe active patterns of deformation, as well as sources and drivers of magmatism. Volcanism prior to the ~50 Ma Indian collision was driven by northward subduction of Tethyian oceanic crust, resulting in pervasive plutonism and group A volcanism in the Gangdese arc of the southern Tibetan Plateau. Concurrent plutonism and group A volcanism in the Tanggula Shan of the central Tibetan Plateau are likely the result of the reactivation of a south-directed fossilized Mesozoic subduction zone (Roger et al., 2000). Magmatism in both regions was most likely driven by subduction and dehydration of oceanic crust, and mantle lithosphere. In the Tangula Shan subduction of Mesozoic marine sediments of the Songpan-Ganzi terrane may have also contributed to melt generation (Wang et al., 2010). Subduction of Songpan-Ganzi crust is broadly compatible with evidence for Eocene to Oligocene deformation of Cenozoic terrestrial sediments which had been deposited near the suture between the Songpan-Ganzi and Qiangtang terranes (Li et al., 2012; Staisch et al., 2014).

The arrival of continental crust of the Indian passive margin at the trench between 56 and 40 Ma (e.g. Bouilhol et al., 2013; Sciunnach and Garzanti, 2012), potentially resulted in flattening of the Tethyian slab and metasomatism of a frozen mantle wedge or lithospheric mantle beneath much of the Tibetan Plateau by 30 Ma. A modern analog may be the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, where a flat Cocos slab drives dehydration melting, and resulting volcanism > 200 km into the continental interior (Jödicke et al., 2006; Pérez-Campos et al., 2008). In Mexico, slab flattening is hypothesized to have been caused by hydration of the mantle wedge, which generated a low viscosity channel that now prevents coupling between the Cocos sab and overriding North American crust (Manea and Gurnis, 2007; Pérez-Campos et al., 2008). Influx of Indian sediment into the mantle during subduction would

84

have provided a mechanism to rapidly hydrate and metasomatize the mantle wedge, drive slab flattening, and prevent coupling with overriding Asian crust, which did not undergo significant crustal shortening between 40 and 30 Ma (Figure 4.1, Figure 4.2, Figure 4.11). A general northerly decrease in Δ7/4, Δ8/4, ⁸⁷Sr/⁸⁶Sr and an increase in ¹⁴⁴Nd/¹⁴³Nd in high MgO (>6 wt%) group B magmas is then indicative of a lower magnitude of metasomatism further away from the southern plate margin, likely due to the incorporation of fewer sedimentary rocks subducted at the plate margin into the mantle beneath those regions.

Flattening of the Tehyian slab may have also resulted in a northward migration of volcanism between to the central Tibetan Plateau between 40 and 30 Ma (Figure 4.1, Figure 4.11). The location of volcanism in this time interval suggests that the Tethyian slab reached past the BNS, and up to

~300 km away from the Asian plate boundary. An absence of volcanism in the Tanggula Shan during this time period indicates that southward directed subduction of Songpan-Ganzi crust must have stopped, with convergence instead accommodated by continued crustal shortening and deformation of basin sediments (Li et al., 2012; Staisch et al., 2014).

A large-scale transition in the composition and extent of volcanism occurred at ~30 Ma, as group B volcanism initiated across the entirety of the Tibetan Plateau. This shift in the spatial distribution of magmatism is roughly concurrent with the termination of upper crustal shortening in the northern Tibetan Plateau and is 10-15 Myr earlier than the development of extensional faulting (Blisniuk et al., 2001; Li et al., 2012; Ratschbacher et al., 2011; Staisch et al., 2014; Sun et al., 2005; Wu et al., 2008; Yuan et al., 2013). Previous authors have hypothesized a coeval initiation of volcanism and normal faulting linked to the removal of a dense lithospheric root and the attainment of elevations of ~5000 m at 10-15 Ma (e.g. Molnar et al., 1993). Our results show that normal faulting and volcanism did not initiate coevally and thus argue strongly against a middle-Miocene timing of lithospheric removal.

Potentially, the initiation of volcanism at ~30 Ma was driven by the rollback and/or breakoff of the Tethyian slab, rather than convective removal of the mantle lithosphere. Removal of the Tethyian slab likely precipitated an influx of hot asthenosphere to regions beneath the Tibetan Plateau, resulting in widespread alkali magmatism and thermal erosion of the mantle lithosphere. Upwelling of hot asthenosphere into regions previously insulated by the Tethyian slab is compatible with petrological data showing a rapid pulse of advective heating of the crust in Oligocene time and a hydrated mantle at temperatures in excess of 1000ºC in middle Miocene time beneath the southern Tibetan Plateau (Liu et al., 2011; Mahéo et al., 2002). Furthermore, this time period marks the

85

termination of prograde metamorphism of sediments now exhumed in Himalayan gneiss domes, and the initiation of a period of rapid near isothermal exhumation, providing evidence for heightened geotherms, and the reorganization of deformation styles at the northern margin on the Indian plate (e.g. Langille et al., 2012; Zhang et al., 2015). In the northern Tibetan Plateau, the correspondence of lavas in our compilation with melts derived from the spinel stability field suggests that melting depths were above ~80 km (Green and Ringwood, 1967; Holbig and Grove, 2008). Given the 60-70 km thick crust in the region today (Zhang et al., 2011), an ~80 km depth of melting would imply that the mantle lithosphere was highly thinned by ~24 Ma.

A final transition took place at 10-15 Ma, with the termination of volcanism in the southern and central Tibetan Plateau. We interpret this shift as being the consequence of Indian underthrusting, which drove the hydrated mantle wedge to the north, and thickened the mantle lithosphere in the southern to south-central Tibetan Plateau to a point where dehydration reactions were no longer favored, thereby removing previous drivers of melt generation. In this interpretation, strain in lithospheric mantle necessarily localizes south of the Tanggula Shan, creating a significant contrast in lithospheric thicknesses between the central and northern Tibetan Plateau. This contrast may help increase rates of volcanism in the northern Tibetan Plateau through shear driven upwelling as has been suggested for the Colorado Plateau of western North America (Ballmer et al., 2015), with a metasomatized mantle wedge acting as a low viscosity pocket and source for melting.

Indian underthrusting may have also precipitated the development of normal faulting by bringing the Tibetan Plateau to gravitationally unstable elevations of over ~4000 m, and contributing to the flow of lower crustal material to the periphery of the orogen (e.g. Styron et al., 2015). Continued crustal shortening then focused north of the Tibetan Plateau, as material in the plateau interior was moved laterally on newly initiated or reactivated strike-slip faults (Duvall et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2007;

Lu et al., 2014; Murphy et al., 2000; Sun et al., 2005; Yuan et al., 2013; Zhang et al., 2012; Zheng et al., 2006). This then resulted in the distribution of faulting and volcanism observed in modern time, with volcanism limited to the northern Tibetan Plateau, dominance of normal faulting above elevations of 5000 m, and strike slip and thrust faulting elsewhere.

86

Figure 4.11 – Proposed geodynamic evolution of the Tibetan plateau over the last 60 Myr. See text for details.

4.6 Conclusions

We present a combined dataset of geochemical, and geochronologic studies from the Tibetan Plateau, and investigate the possible melt source compositions, and geodynamic drivers of volcanism, and mantle metasomatism. Major element, trace element, and isotopic compositions of lavas erupted prior to 40 Ma (group A) are compatible with melt generation in an arc volcanic setting due to northward subduction of Tethyian oceanic crust, and the 40-50 Ma reactivation of a fossilized south directed subduction zone in the central Tibetan Plateau. Lavas erupted since 30 Ma (group B) have compositions indicative of low-degree melting of a metasomatized mantle lithosphere, or cold mantle wedge, as suggested by previous authors (e.g. Mahéo et al., 2002; Turner et al., 1993). Based on Sm/La and Th/La trace element ratios, and Sr, Nd and Pb isotopes, we suggest that mantle metasomatism

87

was generated by subduction of Indian sediments and flattening of the Tethyian oceanic slab between 40 and 30 Ma. The initiation of widespread volcanism across the plateau at 30 Ma, and low-degree melting of subduction metasomatized mantle may have been the result of rollback and/or breakoff of the Tethyian slab. The initiation of volcanism is ~15-20 Myr earlier than a proposed middle Miocene lithospheric removal event suggesting that the initiation of normal faulting and volcanism may not be linked. We propose that the shutoff of volcanism in the southern, and central Tibetan Plateau and the initiation of extensional faulting at 10-15 Ma were likely related to Indian underthrusting and resulting lithospheric thickening.

4.7 References

Agius, M.R., Lebedev, S., 2013. Tibetan and Indian lithospheres in the upper mantle beneath Tibet:

Evidence from broadband surface-wave dispersion. Geochemistry, Geophys. Geosystems 14, 4260–4281. doi:10.1002/ggge.20274

Arnaud, N.O., Vidal, P., Tapponnier, P., Matte, P., Deng, W.M., 1992. The high K2O volcanism of northwestern Tibet: Geochemistry and tectonic implications. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 111, 351–

367. doi:10.1016/0012-821X(92)90189-3

Ballmer, M.D., Conrad, C.P., Smith, E.I., Johnsen, R., 2015. Intraplate volcanism at the edges of the Colorado Plateau sustained by shear-driven upwelling. Geochemistry, Geophys. Geosystems 15, 6744. doi:10.1002/2014GC005641

Blisniuk, P.M., Hacker, B.R., Glodny, J., Ratschbacher, L., Bi, S., Wu, Z., McWilliams, M.O., Calvert, A., 2001. Normal faulting in central Tibet since at least 13.5 Myr ago. Nature 412, 628–32.

doi:10.1038/35088045

Bouilhol, P., Jagoutz, O.E., Hanchar, J.M., Dudas, F.O., 2013. Dating the India–Eurasia collision through arc magmatic records. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 366, 163–175.

doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2013.01.023

Chen, J., Wu, J., Xu, J., Dong, Y., Wang, B., Kang, Z., 2013. Geochemistry of Eocene high-Mg#

adakitic rocks in the northern Qiangtang terrane, central Tibet: Implications for early uplift of the plateau. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 125, 1800–1819. doi:10.1130/B30755.1

Chen, J.-L., Xu, J.-F., Wang, B.-D., Kang, Z.-Q., 2012. Cenozoic Mg-rich potassic rocks in the Tibetan Plateau: Geochemical variations, heterogeneity of subcontinental lithospheric mantle and tectonic implications. J. Asian Earth Sci. 53, 115–130. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.03.003 Chung, S.-L., Chu, M.-F., Zhang, Y., Xie, Y., Lo, C.-H., Lee, T.-Y., Lan, C.-Y., Li, X., Zhang, Q.,

Wang, Y., 2005. Tibetan tectonic evolution inferred from spatial and temporal variations in post-collisional magmatism. Earth-Science Rev. 68, 173–196.

doi:10.1016/j.earscirev.2004.05.001

Clark, M.K., Farley, K.A., Zheng, D., Wang, Z., Duvall, A.R., 2010. Early Cenozoic faulting of the northern Tibetan Plateau margin from apatite (U–Th)/He ages. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 296, 78–88. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2010.04.051

Clark, M.K., Royden, L.H., 2000. Topographic ooze: Building the eastern margin of Tibet by lower crustal flow. Geology 28, 703. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<703:TOBTEM>2.0.CO;2 Cowgill, E., Yin, A., Harrison, T.M., Xiao-Feng, W., 2003. Reconstruction of the Altyn Tagh fault

based on U-Pb geochronology: Role of back thrusts, mantle sutures, and heterogeneous crustal strength in forming the Tibetan Plateau. J. Geophys. Res. 108.

doi:10.1029/2002JB002080

88

Craddock, W., Kirby, E., Zhang, H., 2011. Late Miocene-Pliocene range growth in the interior of the northeastern Tibetan Plateau. Lithosphere 3, 420–438. doi:10.1130/L159.1

DeCelles, P.G., Quade, J., Kapp, P.A., Fan, M., Dettman, D.L., Ding, L., 2007. High and dry in central Tibet during the Late Oligocene. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 253, 389–401.

doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.11.001

Ding, L., Kapp, P.A., Yue, Y., Lai, Q., 2007. Postcollisional calc-alkaline lavas and xenoliths from the southern Qiangtang terrane, central Tibet. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 254, 28–38.

doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2006.11.019

Ding, L., Kapp, P.A., Zhong, D., Deng, W., 2003. Cenozoic Volcanism in Tibet: Evidence for a Transition from Oceanic to Continental Subduction. J. Petrol. 44, 1833–1865.

doi:10.1093/petrology/egg061

Duvall, A.R., Clark, M.K., Kirby, E., Farley, K. a., Craddock, W.H., Li, C., Yuan, D.-Y., 2013. Low-temperature thermochronometry along the Kunlun and Haiyuan Faults, NE Tibetan Plateau:

Evidence for kinematic change during late-stage orogenesis. Tectonics 32, 1190–1211.

doi:10.1002/tect.20072

Duvall, A.R., Clark, M.K., van der Pluijm, B. a., Li, C., 2011. Direct dating of Eocene reverse faulting in northeastern Tibet using Ar-dating of fault clays and low-temperature thermochronometry.

Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 304, 520–526. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2011.02.028

Elkins-Tanton, L.T., Grove, T.L., 2003. Evidence for deep melting of hydrous metasomatized mantle:

Pliocene high-potassium magmas from the Sierra Nevadas. J. Geophys. Res. 108.

doi:10.1029/2002JB002168

England, P., McKenzie, D., 1982. A thin viscous sheet model for continental deformation. Geophys.

J. Int. 70, 295–321. doi:10.1111/j.1365-246X.1982.tb04969.x

Green, D.H., Ringwood, A.E., 1967. The stability fields of aluminous pyroxene peridotite and garnet peridotite and their relevance in upper mantle structure. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 3, 151–160.

doi:10.1016/0012-821X(67)90027-1

Guo, Z., Wilson, M., Liu, J., Mao, Q., 2006. Post-collisional, Potassic and Ultrapotassic Magmatism of the Northern Tibetan Plateau: Constraints on Characteristics of the Mantle Source, Geodynamic Setting and Uplift Mechanisms. J. Petrol. 47, 1177–1220.

doi:10.1093/petrology/egl007

Hacker, B.R., Gnos, E., Ratschbacher, L., Grove, M., Mcwilliams, M., Sobolev, S. V, Wan, J., Zhenhan, W., 2000. Hot and Dry Deep Crustal Xenoliths from Tibet. Science (80-. ). 287, 2463–2466.

doi:10.1126/science.287.5462.2463

Haines, S.S., Klemperer, S.L., Brown, L.D., Guo, J., Mechie, J., Meissner, R., Ross, A., Zhao, W., 2003.

INDEPTH III seismic data: From surface observations to deep crustal processes in Tibet.

Tectonics 22, 1–18. doi:10.1029/2001TC001305

Harrison, T.M., Copeland, P., Kidd, W.S.F., Lovera, O.M., 1995. Activation of the Nyainqentanghla Shear Zone: Implications for uplift of the southern Tibetan Plateau. Tectonics 14, 658–676.

doi:10.1029/95TC00608

Hart, S.R., 1984. A large-scale isotope anomaly in the Southern Hemisphere mantle. Nature 309, 753–

757. doi:10.1038/309753a0

Hirose, K., Kawamoto, T., 1995. Hydrous partial melting of lherzolite at 1 GPa: The effect of H2O on the genesis of basaltic magmas. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 133, 463–473. doi:10.1016/0012-821X(95)00096-U

Holbig, E.S., Grove, T.L., 2008. Mantle melting beneath the Tibetan Plateau: Experimental constraints on ultrapotassic magmatism. J. Geophys. Res. 113, B04210. doi:10.1029/2007JB005149 Jödicke, H., Jording, A., Ferrari, L., Arzate, J., Mezger, K., Rüpke, L., 2006. Fluid release from the

subducted Cocos plate and partial melting of the crust deduced from magnetotelluric studies

89

in southern Mexico: Implications for the generation of volcanism and subduction dynamics.

J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth 111, 1–22. doi:10.1029/2005JB003739

Jolivet, M., Brunel, M., Seward, D., Xu, Z., Yang, J., Malavieille, J., Roger, F., Leyreloup, A., Arnaud, N., Wu, C., 2003. Neogene extension and volcanism in the Kunlun Fault Zone, northern Tibet: New constraints on the age of the Kunlun Fault. Tectonics 22.

doi:10.1029/2002TC001428

Kapp, P.A., DeCelles, P.G., Gehrels, G.E., Heizler, M., Ding, L., 2007. Geological records of the Lhasa-Qiangtang and Indo-Asian collisions in the Nima area of central Tibet. Geol. Soc. Am.

Bull. 119, 917. doi:10.1130/B26033.1

Kapp, P.A., Murphy, M.A., Yin, A., Harrison, T.M., 2003. Mesozoic and Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Shiquanhe area of western Tibet. Tectonics 22. doi:10.1029/2001TC001332

Karplus, M.S., Zhao, W., Klemperer, S.L., Wu, Z., Mechie, J., Shi, D., Brown, L.D., Chen, C., 2011.

Injection of Tibetan crust beneath the south Qaidam Basin: Evidence from INDEPTH IV wide-angle seismic data. J. Geophys. Res. 116, 1–23. doi:10.1029/2010JB007911

Kind, R., Yuan, X., Saul, J., Nelson, D., Sobolev, S. V, Mechie, J., Zhao, W., Kosarev, G., Ni, J., Achauer, U., Jiang, M., 2002. Seismic images of crust and upper mantle beneath Tibet:

evidence for Eurasian plate subduction. Science (80-. ). 298, 1219–1221.

Langille, J.M., Jessup, M.J., Cottle, J.M., Lederer, G., Ahmad, T., 2012. Timing of metamorphism, melting and exhumation of the Leo Pargil dome, northwest India. J. Metamorph. Geol. 30, 769–791. doi:10.1111/j.1525-1314.2012.00998.x

Le Pape, F., Jones, A.G., Vozar, J., Wenbo, W., 2012. Penetration of crustal melt beyond the Kunlun Fault into northern Tibet. Nat. Geosci. 5, 330–335. doi:10.1038/ngeo1449

Li, W., Dong, Y., Guo, A., Liu, X., Zhou, D., 2013. Chronology and tectonic significance of Cenozoic faults in the Liupanshan Arcuate Tectonic Belt at the northeastern margin of the Qinghai–

Tibet Plateau. J. Asian Earth Sci. 73, 103–113. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2013.04.026

Li, Y., He, J., Wang, C., Santosh, M., Dai, J., Zhang, Y., Wei, Y., Wang, J., 2013. Late Cretaceous K-rich magmatism in central Tibet: Evidence for early elevation of the Tibetan plateau? Lithos 160-161, 1–13. doi:10.1016/j.lithos.2012.11.019

Li, Y., Wang, C., Ma, C., Xu, G., Zhao, X., 2011. Balanced cross-section and crustal shortening analysis in the Tanggula-Tuotuohe Area, Northern Tibet. J. Earth Sci. 22, 1–10. doi:10.1007/s12583-011-0152-2

Li, Y., Wang, C., Zhao, X., Yin, A., Ma, C., 2012. Cenozoic thrust system, basin evolution, and uplift of the Tanggula Range in the Tuotuohe region, central Tibet. Gondwana Res. 22, 482–492.

doi:10.1016/j.gr.2011.11.017

Li, Y.L., Zhu, L.D., Dai, J.G., Wang, L.C., Yang, W.G., Wei, Y.S., 2013. Sedimentation and deformation of the Yanghu basin and its tectonic implications in the western Hoh Xil, Central Tibet. Acta Petrol. Sin. 29, 1017–1026.

Liang, X., Sandvol, E., Chen, Y.J., Hearn, T., Ni, J., Klemperer, S., Shen, Y., Tilmann, F., 2012. A complex Tibetan upper mantle: A fragmented Indian slab and no south-verging subduction of Eurasian lithosphere. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 333-334, 101–111.

doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2012.03.036

Liu, C.-Z., Wu, F.-Y., Chung, S.-L., Zhao, Z.-D., 2011. Fragments of hot and metasomatized mantle lithosphere in Middle Miocene ultrapotassic lavas, southern Tibet. Geology 39, 923–926.

doi:10.1130/G32172.1

Liu, Y., Neubauer, F., Genser, J., Ge, X., Takasu, A., Yuan, S., Chang, L., Li, W., 2007. Geochronology of the initiation and displacement of the Altyn Strike-Slip Fault, western China. J. Asian Earth Sci. 29, 243–252. doi:10.1016/j.jseaes.2006.03.002

90

Lu, H., Wang, E., Meng, K., 2014. Paleomagnetism and anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility of the Tertiary Janggalsay section (southeast Tarim basin): Implications for Miocene tectonic evolution of the Altyn Tagh Range. Tectonophysics. doi:10.1016/j.tecto.2014.01.031

Mahéo, G., Guillot, S., Blichert-Toft, J., Rolland, Y., Pêcher, A., 2002. A slab breakoff model for the neogene thermal evolution of South Karakorum and South Tibet. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 195, 45–58. doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00578-7

Manea, V., Gurnis, M., 2007. Subduction zone evolution and low viscosity wedges and channels. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 264, 22–45. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2007.08.030

McCallister, A.T., Taylor, M.H., Murphy, M.A., Styron, R.H., Stockli, D.F., 2014. Thermochronologic constraints on the late Cenozoic exhumation history of the Gurla Mandhata metamorphic core complex, Southwestern Tibet. Tectonics 33, 27–52. doi:10.1002/2013TC003302

McCallister, A.T., Taylor, M.H., Murphy, M.A., Styron, R.H., Stockli, D.F., 2014. Thermochronologic constraints on the late Cenozoic exhumation history of the Gurla Mandhata metamorphic core complex, Southwestern Tibet. Tectonics 33, 27–52. doi:10.1002/2013TC003302

In document UNIVERSIDAD NACIONAL HERMILIO VALDIZAN (página 63-67)