The limitations of this study must be acknowledged. First, this study recruited public primary school pupils from two LGAs in Niger state such that findings may not be generalizable to all public primary school pupils in the country. Second, radiographs were not used to detect non cavitated caries which could have lead to an underestimation of the true caries prevalence.
Despite this, the DMFT index is the most popular rapid and universally applicable visual/tactile method used on the field by the World Health Organization(WHO).2,27 Lastly, only the 24 hour dietary recall was asked. This may not give a true reflection of the pupils’ sugar intake which may vary from day to day. Despite these limitations, this study provides insight as to the causes of dental caries and preventive measures that can be instituted.
CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS
Respondents for this study were rural and urban public primary school pupils from two LGAs in Niger State. In all, 600 public primary school pupils were interviewed in both the rural and urban LGAs selected for this study. All consented and participated in the study, giving a response rate of 100%. Of the 600 pupils interviewed, 300 (50.0%) were in the rural area while 300 (50.0%)
64 were in the urban area.
4.1: Socio-demographic characteristics of the respondents Table 1: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents
Location
Variables Rural Urban Total X2 P-Value
65 (N=300)
n (%)
(N=300) n (%)
(N=600) n (%) Age (years)
8 9 10 11 12
59 (19.7) 48 (16.0) 83 (27.7) 40 (13.3) 70 (23.3)
33 (11.0) 21 (7.0) 66 (22.0) 74 (24.7) 106 (35.3)
92 (15.3) 69 (11.5) 149 (24.8) 114 (19.0) 176 (29.3)
37.36 <0.001
Respondent’s
mean age ± SD 10.05±1.42 10.66±1.31 10.36±1.40 -5.51* <0.001 Sex
Male Female
142 (47.3) 158 (52.7)
159 (53.0) 141 (47.0)
301 (50.2) 299 (49.8)
1.93 0.165
Religion Christianity Islam
16 (5.3) 284 (94.7)
11 (3.7) 289 (96.3)
27 (4.5) 573 (95.5)
0.97 0.325
Ethnic group Nupe
Hausa Yoruba Others**
259 (86.3) 17 (5.7) 7 (2.3) 17 (5.7)
268 (89.3) 13 (4.3) 15 (5.0) 4 (1.3)
527 (87.8) 30 (5.0) 22 (3.7) 21 (3.5)
11.64 0.009
Present class Primary 4 Primary 5 Primary 6
159 (53.0) 124 (41.3) 17 (5.7)
194 (64.7) 63 (21.0) 43 (14.3)
353 (58.8) 187 (31.2) 60 (10.0)
34.64 <0.001
*t-test **Gbagi, Yoruba, Igbo, Fulani, Igala, Igbira, Kambari, Langtan, Mada, Tiv
Table 1 shows the socio-demographic characteristics of the pupils by location. The highest
66
proportion of respondents in the rural area was among the 10 year old 83 (27.7%) compared to the 12 year old 106 (35.3%) in the urban area (p < 0.001). The mean age of the rural respondents 10.05±1.42 years was slightly lower than that of urban respondents which was 10.66±1.31 years p < 0.001.
There were more female respondents 158 (52.7%) in the rural area compared to the urban area 141 (47.0%) while in the urban area, there were more male respondents 159 (53.0%) compared to rural male respondents 142 (47.3%). This however was not statistically significant (p = 0.165).
Islam was the major religion in both locations with 284 (94.7%) of them in the rural area as compared to 289 (96.3%) of them in the urban area. This too was not statistically significant p = 0.325. However, a statistically higher proportion of the urban pupils were Nupe 268 (89.3%) compared to their rural counterparts 259 (86.3%), p = 0.009. Of statistical significance too was the finding of more than half 353 (58.8%) of the respondents in primary four, with 159 of them accounting for 53.0% of rural pupils and 194 accounting for 64.7% of urban pupils (p < 0.001).
67
Table 1 continued: Socio-demographic characteristics of respondents Location
Variables Rural
(N=300) n (%)
Urban (N=300) n (%)
Total (N=600) n (%)
X2 p-value
Family setting Monogamous Polygamous
139 (46.3) 161 (53.7)
132 (44.0) 168 (56.0)
271 (45.2) 329 (54.8)
0.33 0.566
Number of parent’s children 1 - 3
≥4
28 (9.3) 272 (90.7)
26 (8.7) 274 (91.3)
54 (9.0) 546 (91.0)
0.08 0.775
Pupil’s birth position 1st
≥2nd
27 (9.0) 273 (91.0)
40 (13.3) 260 (86.7)
67 (11.2) 533 (88.8)
2.84 0.092
Parents marital status Currently married Not currently married
285 (95.0) 15 (5.0)
289 (96.3) 11 (3.7)
574 (95.7) 26 (4.3)
0.64 0.423
Who child stays with Both parents
Mother only Others*
225 (75.0) 42 (14.0) 33 (11.0)
257 (85.7) 8 (2.7) 35 (11.7)
482 (80.3) 50 (8.3) 68 (11.3)
25.30 <0.001 Father’s highest level of
education
No formal education Primary education Secondary education Tertiary education
24 (8.0) 23 (7.7) 155 (51.7) 98 (32.7)
21 (7.0) 7 (2.3) 151 (50.3) 121 (40.3)
45 (7.5) 30 (5.0) 306 (51.0) 219 (36.5)
11.20 0.011
Mother’s highest level of education
No formal education Primary education Secondary education Tertiary education
106 (35.3) 85 (28.3) 85 (28.3) 24 (8.0)
84 (28.0) 72 (24.0) 108 (36.0) 36 (12.0)
190 (31.7) 157 (26.2) 193 (32.2) 60 (10.0)
8.77 0.033
Father’s occupation Unemployed
Self employed Civil servant
10 (3.3) 169 (56.4) 121 (40.3)
16 (5.3) 141 (47.0) 143 (47.7)
26 (4.3) 310 (51.7) 264 (44.0)
5.74 0.057
Mother’s occupation Unemployed
Self employed Civil servant
134 (44.7) 133 (44.3) 33 (11.0)
100 (33.3) 158 (52.7) 42 (14.0)
234 (39.0) 291 (48.5) 75 (12.5)
8.17 0.017
*Aunties, Uncles, Islamic scholars
68
Table 1 continued show other socio-demographic characteristics of the pupils by location. In both the rural and urban settings, the pupils’ family setting, number of parent’s children, pupil’s birth position and parent’s present marital status were not statistically significant p>0.05. A significantly higher proportion of rural pupils 42 (14.0%) compared with urban pupils 8 (2.7%) stayed with a single parent, specifically their mothers (p<0.001).
In terms of educational attainment, a significant proportion of fathers 306 (51%) had secondary education, with a slightly higher proportion 155 (51.7%) of them in the rural area as compared to 151 (50.3%) of urban dwelling fathers. However, a higher proportion of urban fathers 121 (40.3%) attained tertiary level of education as compared to 98 (32.7%) of fathers in the rural area p=0.011. Most rural mothers 106 (35.3%) had no formal education as compared with urban mothers, most of whom had secondary education 108 (36.0%). Only 36 (12.0%) and 24 (8.0%) of urban and rural mothers respectively had tertiary education, p=0.033.
Furthermore, while most rural fathers were self employed 169 (56.4%), most urban fathers 143 (47.7%) were civil servants but this was not statistically significant p=0.057. A significant number of rural mothers were unemployed 134 (44.7%) compared with urban mothers who were mostly self employed 158 (52.7%), p=0.017.
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Table 2: Ownership of household assets by respondents’ parents Location
Variables Rural
(N=300) n (%)
Urban (N=300) n (%)
Total (N=600) n (%)
X2 p-value
Refrigerator Yes
No
174 (58.0) 126 (42.0)
245 (81.7) 55 (18.3)
419 (69.8) 181 (30.2)
39.88 <0.001
Television Yes No
268 (89.3) 32 (10.7)
285 (95.0) 15 (5.0)
553 (92.2) 47 (7.8)
6.67 0.010
Generator Yes No
178 (59.3) 122 (40.7)
182 (60.7) 118 (39.3)
360 (60.0) 240 (40.0)
0.11 0.739
Fan Yes No
294 (98.0) 6 (2.0)
298 (99.3) 2 (0.7)
592 (98.7) 8 (1.3)
0.286*
Motorcycle Yes No
256 (85.3) 44 (14.7)
259 (86.3) 41 (13.7)
515 (85.8) 85 (14.2)
0.12 0.725
Motor vehicle Yes
No
102 (34.0) 198 (66.0)
139 (46.3) 161 (53.7)
241 (40.2) 359 (59.8)
9.49 0.002
Stove Yes No
226 (75.3) 74 (24.7)
250 (83.3) 50 (16.7)
476 (79.3) 124 (20.7)
5.86 0.016
Electric/Gas cooker Yes
No
65 (21.7) 235 (78.3)
105 (35.0) 195 (65.0)
170 (28.3) 430 (71.7)
13.13 <0.001
Electric iron Yes
No
259 (86.3) 41 (13.7)
288 (96.0) 12 (4.0)
547 (91.2) 53 (8.8)
17.41 <0.001
Radio Yes No
243 (81.0) 57 (19.0)
262 (87.3) 38 (12.7)
505 (84.2) 95 (15.8)
4.52 0.034
Mobile phone Yes
No
297 (99.0) 3 (1.0)
298 (99.3) 2 (0.7)
595 (99.2) 5 (0.8)
1.000*
70
*Fisher’s Exact Test
Table 2 depicts ownership of household assets by the respondents’ parents. A significantly higher proportion of pupils’ parents dwelling in the urban area owned household items such as refrigerator 245 (81.7%), television 285 (95.0%), motor vehicle 139 (46.3%), stove 250 (83.3%), electric or gas cooker 105 (35.0%), electric iron 288 (96.0%) and radio 262 (87.3%) when compared to parents of pupils in the rural area that owned refrigerator 174 (58.0%), television 268 (89.3%), motor vehicle 102 (34.0%), stove 226 (75.3%), electric or gas cooker 65 (21.7%), electric iron 259 (86.3%) and radio 243 (81.0%), with p<0.05 across all items afore mentioned.
Other household items such as generator, fan, motorcycle and mobile phone were not statistically significant p>0.05.
71 Table 3: Wealth index of pupils by location
Location
Variables Rural
(N=300) n (%)
Urban (N=300) n (%)
Total (N=600) n (%)
X2 p-value
Lowest 88 (29.3) 32 (10.7) 120 (20.0) 41.12 <0.001
Second 63 (21.0) 54 (18.1) 117 (19.5)
Middle 53 (17.7) 59 (19.7) 112 (18.7)
Fourth 49 (16.3) 86 (28.8) 135 (22.5)
Highest 47 (15.7) 68 (22.7) 115 (19.2)
Table 3 displays the wealth index of pupils by location. A statistically significant proportion of urban pupils 86 (28.8%) were found in the fourth wealth quintile as compared to rural pupils who were mostly in the lowest wealth quintile 88 (29.3%). Almost equal number of pupils were in the middle quintile in both locations, out of whom 59 (19.7%) reside in the urban area and 53 (17.7%) in the rural area p<0.001.
72 4.2. Prevalence of dental caries
Table 4: Prevalence of dental caries by person level caries experience Location
Variables Rural
(N=300) n (%)
Urban (N=300) n (%)
Total (N=600) n (%)
X2 p-value
Decayed tooth (D) Yes
No
266 (88.7) 34 (11.3)
240 (80.0) 60 (20.0)
506 (84.3) 94 (15.7)
8.53 0.003
Missing tooth (M) Yes
No
35 (11.7) 265 (88.3)
46 (15.3) 254 (84.7)
81 (13.5) 519 (86.5)
1.73 0.189
Filled tooth (F)*
Yes No
0 (0.0) 300 (100.0)
0 (0.0) 300 (100.0)
0 (0.0) 600 (100.0)
*No filled tooth was found
Table 4 shows the various components of the DMFT index giving the person level caries experience among rural and urban pupils. A statistically significant proportion of rural pupils 266 (88.7%) compared to urban pupils 240 (80.0%) had dental caries, p=0.003. In terms of the missing teeth component of DMFT, more urban 46 (15.3%) than rural 35 (11.7%) pupils had
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missing teeth due to caries. This however was not statistically significant (p=0.189). None of the rural and urban pupils examined had filled teeth.
Table 5: Respondents Decayed, Missing, Filled Teeth (DMFT) scores according to WHO criteria and location
Location
Variables Rural
(N=300) n (%)
Urban (N=300) n (%)
Total (N=600) n (%)
X2 p-value
DMFT Score 0
1 - 3
≥4
34 (11.3) 115 (38.3) 151 (50.3)
54 (18.0) 120 (40.0) 126 (42.0)
88 (14.7) 235 (39.2) 277 (46.2)
6.91 0.032
At least one DMFT score
Yes No
266 (88.7) 34 (11.3)
246 (82.0) 54 (18.0)
512 (85.3) 88 (14.7)
5.33 0.021
Mean DMFT score + SD
0.89 ± 0.32 0.82 ± 0.38 0.85 ± 0.35 2.31* 0.021
*t-test
Table 5 shows each respondent’s DMFT score based on the WHO criteria. Almost half 277 (46.2%) of the pupils in both locations had DMFT score of four or more, with a significantly
74
higher proportion of them 151 (50.3%) attending rural schools than urban schools 126 (42.0%), p=0.032. Furthermore, Table 5 also shows that rural pupils 266 (88.7%) were significantly more likely to have a minimum DMFT score of one than urban pupils 246 (82.0%) while the mean DMFT score of 0.89 ± 0.32 for the rural pupils was slightly higher than that of urban pupils which was 0.82 ± 0.38, (p=0.021).