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neglecting gender capacity are two main gender inequality issues within disaster reconstruction which challenge to achieve sustainability of reconstruction. Hence, gender mainstreaming strategy for sustainable post-disaster reconstruction should address both issues. Gender mainstreaming strategies within sustainable reconstruction should not only incorporate strategies for protecting women vulnerability but also strategies for promoting women capacity (Figure 4.1). Both strategies are needed to create gender equality and women empowerment which both are fundamental for sustainable reconstruction.

99 4.3.1 Gender mainstreaming as a strategy to achieve social sustainability

Social sustainability focuses which the activities of reconstruction must identify the extent of variables (identities, social value, social organizations and relationship within affected areas) can be managed and adapted to the disasters in the future (Lizarralde et al. 2009; Peng et al. 2014; Escamilla and Habert, 2015). Post-disaster reconstruction provides opportunities to create social sustainability through building social capital and encourages social participation; provides social security and enlarge education access; building community confidence, enhance social accountability and transparency through community development; and provides equal

GM strategy Social sustainability GM strategy for reducing vulnerability GM strategy for promoting capacity

Protect women from sexual violence

Protect women from cultural discrimination

Protect disabled, old and pregnant women

Address women knowledge and experience into disaster relief and training

Enlarge women access to education services

Enlarge women access to decision making processes

Protect unpaid women Protect poor girls and women

Economic sustainability

GM strategy for reducing vulnerability

GM strategy for

promoting capacity _{Enlarge women access to productive} assets and resources

Environment sustainability GM strategy for reducing vulnerability GM strategy for promoting capacity

Provide women with healthy sanitation and clean water

Protect women from environmental degradation

Use women knowledge and experience to promote better built environment

Enlarge women access to jobs opportunities

Protect women from debt/loan

Figure 4.1 Gender mainstreaming strategies within sustainable post-disaster reconstruction (source: author based on literature review)

Eq u ali ty + wo m e n e m p o we rm en t

100 opportunities for community member to participate in community development and to access development programs.

Sustainable development agenda emphasizes several goals of social sustainability. These goals include providing primary education in all countries, reducing gender disparity in elementary and high school, reduced infants and children mortality, reduced maternal mortality and increase women access on basic health care system particularly the reproductive health services (UNDP, 2013). Hence, integrating gender mainstreaming strategy into reconstruction has potential to achieve these goals. For example, gender stereotypes, social values and norms, limited and unequal access and control to resources, limited women’s capabilities to involve fully due to poor health and education services during reconstruction (Fordham, 2003; Enarson and Chakrabarti, 2009; Gaillard et al. 2015). However, it is also recognized that women social networking capacity and knowledge are essential to achieving sustainable reconstruction (Drolet et al., 2015). Hence, gender mainstreaming strategies to achieve social sustainability should not only protect women from social and cultural discrimination and violence against them but also should promote and enlarge their access to disaster relief and training process, education services and more importantly within decision-making process during reconstruction.

4.3.2 Gender mainstreaming as a strategy to achieve economic sustainability

Economic sustainability concerns how to fulfill human consumptions, wealth, utility or welfare without diminishing the prospect of the next generation to enjoy it (Ciegis et al. 2015). Post- disaster reconstruction provides opportunities for building economic sustainability through enlarging job creation and equal job opportunities for all community members; protect and enlarge economic access of unemployed and poor people of disaster affected areas; and encourage economic growth through economic and business development within disaster affected areas (Yonder et al. 2005; Ariyabandhu, 2009; Ciegis et al. 2015).

Sustainable development agenda emphasizes two primary goals of economic sustainability. These goals include reducing extreme poverty in developing countries and brings the number of men and women living daily on $1.25 (or less) to zero (UNDP, 2010). Hence, integrating gender mainstreaming strategy into reconstruction has potential to achieve these goals. For example, women are more vulnerable to job markets because of their sexual roles and gender bias in job markets (Gaillard et al. 2015). However, it is also recognized that once women gain access to resources, get opportunities and are allowed to participate equally in economic activities; they will gain a better position to fulfill their role as ‘drivers’ of reconstruction outcomes and get

101 benefits of sustainable and inclusive economic growth (Enarson, 2014). Hence, gender mainstreaming strategies to achieve economic sustainability of reconstruction should not only protect women from poverty and unpaid work and low wages but also enlarge their access to resources and productive assets ( land, properties, and fund), proper jobs and essential services (clean water and energy).

4.3.3 Gender mainstreaming as a strategy to achieve environmental sustainability

Environmental sustainability is about making responsible policies that not only reduce the detrimental effect of development on the environment but also built the environment better (UNDP, 2010; Ciegis et al. 2015). Post-disaster reconstruction provides opportunities for creating environmental sustainability through a better-built environment, protects a community from environmental degradation; and better urban planning through integrating disaster risk reduction system such as developing an effective early warning system for future disaster (Jones, 2006; Lizarralde et al. 2009; Wilkinson et al. 2014).

The main goal of environmental sustainability of sustainable development agenda is protecting and ensuring the environmental resources. United Nations (2016) reports since 1990, about 1.7 billion individuals have access to clean and safe water to drink, more than 884 million suffer from polluted water for drink, and 2.6 billion without accesses to good sanitation. Hence, integrating gender mainstreaming strategy into reconstruction has potential to achieve these goals. For example, it is recognized that environmental sustainability needs a deep acknowledgment of the relationship between environmental resources and women, also women’s rights and roles in management and planning of those resources (UNDP, 2010). Recognition and integration of women’s knowledge about the environment, likewise their understanding of environmental degradation with its impact, especially the gender impacts, are important for improving sustainable environment after a disaster (Smyth and Sweetman, 2015; Drolet et al. 2015). Hence, gender mainstreaming strategies to promote environmental sustainability of reconstruction should not only protect women from environmental degradation and pollution but also promote their capacity to build better biodiversity and environment.

After discussing some gender mainstreaming strategies to enhance the sustainability of reconstruction, the next section discusses the integration of gender mainstreaming in post- disaster reconstruction process (planning, design, and construction).

102 4.4. Integrating gender mainstreaming within post-disaster reconstruction

Gender mainstreaming is a cross cutting issue. Therefore it can be integrated within every action plan including legislations, programs, and policies, in all levels and regions (i.e. national, provincial, and local/district government) (Bradshaw and Fordham, 2014). Mainstreaming may be done by involving gender equality perspective that significant in data collection, data analysis, and the relevant activities to make sure that every activity takes into considerations the needs, priorities, and contributions of all groups within a community, including women and men. The concern of the gender equality and its goal should be mainstreamed into, analysis, policy development with its all activities and research.

It is stated by The Platform for Action (United Nations, 1996) that gender analysis is the first fundamental phase in mainstreaming gender. It should be carried out before decision-making process, in all sections of societal development and covering the existing responsibilities and contributions of women and men. Accordingly, gender analysis also should identify the potential impact of designed programs, processes, and activities for men and women. It is not necessary to substitute the need for targeted, women specific programs, projects, policies and effective legislations. Therefore it is a complementary strategy. Accordingly, it should be executed in an approach which supporting women empowerment.

The mainstreaming gender into all development divisions needs several phases (ECOSOC, 2012). It is started by, firstly, an assessment of the links between the current existing issues and gender equality to recognize the gender impacts of the existing programs such as poverty eradication, environment protection, health service and development, and other relevant Development's work. Accordingly, it is including knowledge about the importance of gender equality in securing social justice and human rights for men and women, also for completing and achieving of development's targets. Secondly, the moment for presenting the gender perspective within on going activities with the entry point can be extracted from analysis, research, development policies, data, statistic, training, workshop, conference, and the implementation work of project and programs. Thirdly, identification of a method or approach to successfully integrate a gender perspective into the development activities related to assisting influencing targets or goals, resources distribution, and its outcomes, and strategies for implementation. It can be carried out by increasing attention to gender issues and the gender equality goal that accommodates reference and job detail. The other requirements to promote gender mainstreaming are an

103 institutional development that including establishing guidelines, hiring and using gender experts, and preparing competence development for all staffs.

Post-disaster reconstruction consists of several stages. Da Silva and Ranasinghe (2010) for example explains that post-disaster reconstruction includes three main stages: planning, design, and construction. Gender mainstreaming strategies can be integrated into each stage (Figure 4.2).

M

Figure 4.2 Gender mainstreaming strategies within post-disaster reconstruction stages (source: adapted from Da Silva and Ranasinghe, 2010)

Firstly, the planning stage consists of activities in an identification of the overarching issue that must be acknowledged before decisions making whether and how to participate in reconstruction; which must be controlled and amend during the reconstruction implementation. Crucial analysis in this stage is recognition of the disaster’s context and its impact; acknowledgement of the district government structures; regulation and establishment of coordination methods; funding and timetable; selecting beneficiaries; building networks between stakeholders; identifying support means that is most appropriate; understanding

Planning Design Construction

Situation or context Appraisal Governance Financial Selection of recipient Affiliation or partnership Natural disasters/hazards Assistance system Preparation and planning of project and programme

Choosing location and inspection

Land ownership Material and physical preparation

Quality and value Building or construction categories

Environment

House plan and design Disaster risk reduction Design of schools and health centres Project plan Implementation procedures and methods Implementation procedures and methods Logistic of material

Management in building and infrastructure construction Skill and expertise

Transfer or hand over

 Gender analysis to identify gender vulnerability and capacity  Introduce gender sensitive budgeting within reconstruction planning  Strengthen gender planning institutions

 Women needs and interests within design of houses, schools and health centres.  Women leadership

within site selection and project plan.

 Women are right to ownership and control of housing and land.

 Women access and participate within reconstruction.  Women’s rights and

empowerment of jobs.  Women leaderships

within management of construction projects.  Gender based feedback

104 natural hazards that threat in the future; and allocating resources (Da Silva and Ranasinghe, 2010). Further, Oxfam (2010) explain that the integration of gender mainstreaming strategies within planning stage includes the following activities: ensuring gender analysis within planning assessments, building objective on gender equality and women empowerment within planning and budgeting, awareness of gender vulnerabilities and concerns of different vulnerable groups of women (i.e. widows, girl children, and women with disabilities); and assess the different implications of planned programme for both women and men.

Design step deals with the reconstruction project design in detail based on the previous decision to build temporary shelters or permanent housing. The fundamental concerns related to this activity are including site selection; identification and resolve problems about land ownership; planning of physical settlement; identification of proper reconstruction quality; considering and integrating the strategy of disaster risk reduction; making design of the houses or shelters and other public buildings; planning the budget and breakdown it into detailed projects and activities (Da Silva and Ranasinghe, 2010). The integration of gender mainstreaming strategies within design stage include ensuring women needs and interests reflected within a design of houses, schools, and health centers; women leadership within site selection and project plan; and support women’s right to ownership and control of economic assets such as housing and land.

Moreover, the construction stage explains the execution of the reconstruction programs. It includes the considerations of implementation methods, project management of the construction, specification, procurement, and distribution of the reconstruction’s material, labor and skill management, distribution of the buildings or handover, and evaluation along with maintenance of the buildings after the projects are completed. The integration of gender mainstreaming strategies within construction stage include ensuring that women and men can access and to participate in reconstruction; work with men to secure their support for reconstruction activities that uphold women’s rights and empowerment; involving women leaderships within management of construction projects; ensure accountability by establishing mechanisms that enable both female and male beneficiaries to give feedback on reconstruction programs. It is also important that this stage includes feedback on reconstruction program that particularly relates to gender issues.

In summary, post-disaster reconstruction process consists of some key considerations in which policy makers can include gender mainstreaming aspects within each process. It is critical to

105 including gender mainstreaming elements on each process to create a gender sensitive process of reconstruction. However, effective implementation of gender mainstreaming within post- disaster reconstruction also need to consider enabling/constraining conditions. Accordingly, the next section identifies and discusses the enabling/constraining conditions for effective gender mainstreaming into development.

4.5 Mainstreaming gender within post-disaster reconstruction: why it works and does not