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The individual considerations, or the aspects of volunteering which have direct effects on the older adults who take on these roles, are quite wide in breadth. Studies exploring these elements of older adult volunteering focus on the individual and how their involvement in volunteering changes them, their environment, and their connections to the community. Included in this section are: the motivations of older adult volunteers, including personal roles, resources,

religious influence, and access to opportunity; older adult volunteer behaviour, including how they engage with volunteering and proposed behavioural models; transition to retirement and its influence on volunteering; and effects on the health and well-being of older adults who

volunteer.

The work on motivations for volunteering in older adults is extensive on its own, and delves into several sub-topic areas. Erlinghagen (2010), working with data from Germany showed that education is a major factor in volunteer motivation, but even this is out-stretched by previous life course experience volunteering. Tang and Morrow-Howell (2008) have researched how the access to volunteer opportunities affects the motivation to volunteer in older adults. Krause (2015) has done work on how involvement in religious organizations is a major factor in the motivation of older adults to volunteer, work which supports previous claims made by Choi (2003), as well as Becker & Dhingra (2001), and Ebaugh, Pipes, Chafetz & Daniels (2003). Choi (2003) conducted work in the US using national panel data which explored employment status and its effect on volunteering, showing a positive effect on volunteer time commitment. Griffin and Hesketh (2008) have also explored the role that work plays; both work prior to retirement and work during retirement effect motivation in volunteers. Also, Principi, Schippers, Naegele, Di Rosa, and Lamura (2015) explored the role that personal resources and access to resources play on the motivation of older adults to volunteer, showing that increased personal resources leads to increased volunteer action.

Literature in the area of volunteer behaviour is of broader context and examines the actions of the volunteers themselves, or proposes models of volunteer behaviour. Godbout, Filiatrault and Plante (2012) provide a systematic review of volunteer behavioural literature, conducting a meta-analysis of available work on this area. They identify areas which both positively and negatively

affect the voluntary engagement behaviour of older adults. Factors they identify as positively associated with volunteering in older adults include: person-linked elements, including personal values, perception of challenge, personal experience, being younger, being a woman, and self-rated well-being; environmental factors, including physical access, social possibilities, and institutional factors including job diversity and organizational structure; and occupation-linked factors, where the volunteer roles are similar to previous work roles. Factors negatively affecting volunteer behaviour included: negative personal feelings about volunteering; environmental factors, including strict environments, large families, and ageism; and occupational factors, including high costs associated with volunteering, and continuing to work full-time. Peters-Davis, Burant and Braunschweig (2001) provide a volunteer motivational model which is meant to help explain behavioural choices in volunteers. The personal, environmental, and occupational rationales described by Godbout, Filiatrault and Plante in their meta-analysis are similar to Peters-Davis, Bruant and Braunschweig’s model, which cites structural, cultural, personality, and situational factors as having effects on volunteer behaviour. Although the Peters-Davis et al.

model is not specific to older adults, it is applicable here as those same factors can be applied to older adults (see Hamm-Kerwin, Misener, & Doherty, 2009 for an example of this application).

The research that focuses specifically on the transition to retirement in relation to older adult volunteers is less available than work on their motivations or behaviour. In this area we see specific studies on the influence of retirement transition on the willingness and ability to

volunteer, how individuals anticipate this transition, and the influence that pre-retirement

decisions about the value of volunteering affect volunteer choices during and after this transition (Mutchler et al., 2003; D. B. Smith, 2004; J. D. Smith & Gay, 2005). There is also some work on how the transition phase, as well as volunteer involvement in that phase of life, affects the

retirement pattern as a whole for individuals (J. D. Smith & Gay, 2005; Tang, 2015). This work shows that individuals who are involved in some part-time work are more likely to volunteer, and postulates that continued involvement with social groups and community connections through work is the catalyst for this. In addition to these areas, Einolf (2009) conducted comparative analysis between current retirees (baby boomers) and their generational predecessors to examine their relative volunteer commitments and showed generational differences between them.

Although research on the topic of health and well-being in volunteering is extensive, papers in this area focus primarily on three things, often within the same research articles:

influences on mortality; overall well-being of older adult volunteers; and how specific

experiences affect health outcomes for older adults. Dye and colleagues (1973) did comparative analysis between older adult volunteers and non-volunteers to establish health outcome

differences in these populations. The work of Harris and Thoresen (2005) used Longitudinal Study of Aging (LSOA) data to show that consistent volunteering significantly reduced mortality in the sample. Jirovec & Hyduk (1999) explored whether the type and duration of volunteering had an effect on psychological well-being in older adults and showed that it did. Parkinson, Warburton, Sibbritt, and Byles (2010) showed how both psychological and physical health factors affected participation in volunteer activities by older women. Nimrod and colleagues (Janke et al., 2008; Kleiber & Nimrod, 2009; Nimrod, 2007b), have done work exploring the associations between leisure activities (including volunteer as a use of leisure time) and well-being. Their work has shown that well-being is positively associated with leisure participation, and that this increases with age. Van Willigen (2000) also explored the effects of volunteering across the life course, and showed that volunteering in later life had positive effects on health

Older Adult Volunteers

Individual Considerations Organizational Considerations

Motivations Explores issues of personal role loss/gain, post-retirement work, links between personal resources and

motivation, religiosity and spirituality, access to opportunities, and broad factors.

(see: Choi, 2003; Erlinghagen, 2010; Griffin & Hesketh, 2008; Krause, 2015; Tang & Morrow-Howell, 2008)

Behaviour Broad examination of volunteer behaviour, or proposals of volunteer behaviour models.

Systematic review of behaviour literature – (Godbout, Filiatrault, & Plante, 2012)

Volunteer motivational model – (Peters-Davis, Burant, & Braunschweig, 2001)

Transition Work exploring the major life transitions of older adults moving from the working world into retirement, and how this transition affects volunteer roles and desires

among older people.

(see: Einolf, 2009; Mutchler, Burr, & Caro, 2003; D. B.

Smith, 2004; J. D. Smith & Gay, 2005; Tang, 2015)

Health and

Well-Being Influences on mortality, overall well-being, and how specific experiences affect health outcomes for older

adults.

(Harris & Thoresen, 2005; Jirovec & Hyduk, 1999; Van Willigen, 2000)

Retention

The ability of, and the best practices in, organizations to retain, develop, and utilize older adult volunteers.

Maintaining satisfaction over time.

(Hong, Morrow-Howell, Tang, & Hinterlong, 2009;

Tang, Morrow-Howell, & Choi, 2010)

Engagement

Issues of institutional facilitation of volunteering, encouraging continual volunteering through life

changes.

(Morrow-Howell, Hinterlong, Rozario, & Tang, 2003;

Stevens, 1991) 32

and well-being, and potentially delayed mortality. Interestingly, Nimrod and Shrira (2016), along with findings which agreed with Van Willigen, highlighted a paradox whereby aging individuals who would benefit most from leisure participation are also those with the most leisure constraints in the post-retirement age group.