Propuestas metodológicas

According to Rasa (2010:26), PD is often described in the literature using terms such as INSET, staff development, career development, human resource development continuing education and lifelong learning. Budd and Earley (2010:1) point out that PD consists of reflective activity designed to improve an individual’s attributes of knowledge, understanding and skills. In addition, PD supports an individual’s needs and improves professional practice. Furthermore, Tan (2009:1) contends that PD is an ongoing training and education throughout a career to improve skills and knowledge used to perform a job. In a fast changing curriculum such as in South Africa in which skills are likely to obsolesce quickly, PD must be continuous and directed towards maintaining the professional knowledge, skills and competence necessary for the diligent and competent practice of the grades 10-12 NCS implementation (Tan, 2009:1). Recent research findings show that teachers consider training and development of great importance (Budd & Earley, 2010:4). In eight out of ten teachers, PD is an important factor when considering both their future in their current school and in teaching profession (National Foundation for Educational Research (NFER), 2008).

According to Budd and Earley (2007:4), PD is an ongoing process encompassing all formal and informal learning experiences that enable teachers to think about what they are doing, enhance their knowledge and skills and improve ways of working so that learner learning and well-being are enhanced as a result. PD should achieve a balance among teachers, groups of schools and national needs; encourage a commitment to professional and personal growth; and increase resilience, self-confidence, job satisfaction and enthusiasm for working with children and colleagues. Therefore, PDPs should meet the individual needs of teachers (Lee, 2005). Furthermore, teachers prefer more practical programmes that meet their specific needs (Robinson & Carrington, 2002). Desimone et al. (2006:205) suggest scaffolding PD opportunities by offering programmes targeted at teachers at varying levels of content knowledge and skills. These suggested PD models will be dealt with in this chapter. In the context of this study, PD is defined as the continuous process to develop RSSTs’ competencies in order to be able to implement the new South African curriculum for grades 10-12 in KZN rural secondary schools.

3.3.1 Teacher PD theories

3.3.1.1 Constructivism theory of learning for RSSTs

Constructive learning theory suggests that learning is a constructive process in which the learner builds an internal interpretation of experience, a sense making process where the individual RSST builds new knowledge and understanding from the base of existing knowledge and perceptions (Chalmers & Keown, 2006:148). According to Gensburg and Herman (2008), constructivism lends itself to a learner-centered learning environment where learners which are RSSTs in this case are actively engaged in learning. In-service RSSTs can be these learners as they try to implement the grades 10-12 NCS in the classroom using constructive teaching. Ng and Nguyen (2006:41) define constructivism as the belief that the learner is active in shaping how new knowledge is taken and shaped; furthermore, that new understandings emerge progressively as learners (RSSTs) develop hypotheses, test hypotheses and re-shape their understanding on the basis of experience. From these learning theories teaching methods such as group work and peer-tutoring methods are developed to tap into the learning process (Gensburg & Herman, 2008).

Figure 3.1 Challenged-based learning and other learning methods for RSSTs

Adapted from: Baloian, Hoppe, Milrand and Hoeksema (2006, p. 10)

There is a logical development from the theory to method which brings us learning environments. Constructivism lends itself to certain learning environments. The new curriculum-enhanced constructivist learning environments offer many opportunities to

 Discovery  based Role    Problem  based Role  Experiential  learning  Challenged  learning  Knowledge 

enquiry  Knowledge _construction

To grasp  and  transform  Knowledge  interpretation  & construction  Detective,  picking up clues  Participant  searching  Active  participant  choosing  Active  constructor/  designer  As a  mystery 

RSST coach  PD _facilitator  Experimenter 

& designer  Cognitive  focus   Role of  the  Role of SMT &  subject  d i

engage RSSTs authentic, complex, and guided learning interactions (Sharma, Xie, Hsieh, Hsieh & Yoo, 2008:88). These environments are learner-centred, interesting, real life, social, active, time, feedback and supportive (Sherman & Kurshan, 2005). In a learner-centred environment the PD facilitator (SMT member or subject adviser) bases instruction on RSSTs’ prior knowledge and experiences (Gensburg & Herman, 2008). The constructive learning incorporates teacher communities as the context of learning (Sherman & Kurshan, 2005:12). Therefore, social learning is an important part of constructivism because it allows the RSST to relate the new knowledge with what they determine important. The RSST as a learner uses reading, writing, research, discussion and other activities in order to construct knowledge (Gensburg & Herman, 2008).

3.3.1.2 RSSTs’ professional learning communities

The literature has drawn attention to the social nature of learning and central role that communities of practice (CoP) can play in enhancing RSSTs’ professional development knowledge and improving their practice (Little, 2002). The literature indicates that PD experiences are particular effective when situated in a collegial learning environment, where RSSTs work collaboratively to enquire and reflect on their teaching. As a result, university- based and school-based PDPs have a central featured opportunity for RSSTs to participate collaboratively in professional communities (Whitcomb, Borko & Liston, 2009:210). Whitcomb et al. (2009:210) argue that functional professional learning communities help maintain a balance between respecting teachers (RSSTs) as individuals and critically analyzing issues in their teaching.

Sargent and Hannum’s (2009:258) study of professional learning communities in rural China used survey data collected from rural school teachers to investigate the cultural and institutional features in China’s approach to organizing teacher learning, even when resources were constrained. Their study identified several practices Chinese teachers engaged in when participating in professional learning communities such as collective lesson planning, peer observation, evaluation, and critique; observation of demonstration of mode lessons; and production and consumption of research. They found these activities penetrating in some China’s poor schools in meaningful ways (Sargent & Hannum, 2009). This indicates that even though KZN rural secondary schools are very poor, grades 10-12 NCS can be a success as long as teachers are willing to develop each other more particularly in clusters where there are opportunities for RSSTs to meet for development purposes (Hlongwane, 2008).

3.3.1.3 RSSTs’ situated PD in the work of teaching

As Wei, Darling-Hammond, Andree, Richardson and Orphanos (2009:3) point out, the content of PD is most useful when it focuses on concrete tasks of teaching, assessment, observation, and reflection. Therefore, researchers such as Whitcomb et al. (2009:207) are currently working to identify the concrete tasks that are central to teaching and learning. Research by Kazemi, Lampert and Ghousseini (2007) focused on instructional routines, recurring instructional activities that are easily recognized by a set of teaching moves they entail and the role they play in classroom practice. Grossman and McDonald (2008) focus on “high leverage practice” that occurs with the frequency in teaching and are enacted across different curricula instructional approaches, preserve the integrity and complexity of teaching, are research-based, and have the potential to improve learner achievement. Although there are nuanced differences in the focus of their work, these researchers share a belief in the value of placing the core practices at the centre of RSST learning experiences.

Focusing on teacher preparation such as the grades 10-12 NCS orientation workshops, Grossman and McDonald (2008:188) argue that teachers’ PDPs should move away from what teachers need to know, to a curriculum focused on WIL, in which the development of pedagogical skill in interactive aspects of teaching is addressed by university-based teacher educators, as well as field experiences. Whitcomb et al. (2009:207) suggest that these instructional practices are worthwhile candidates for PD efforts to enhance teacher quality.

3.3.1.4 Literate and illiterate learning theories for the RSSTs

Adult development theories provide a framework for understanding of how adult learners are different from younger learners, while also providing insight into devising better PDPs to meet the needs of teachers (Trotter, 2006:8). Research in the area of adult development included that of Oja (in Trotter 2006) who studied adult learning as it applied to teacher in- service education by identifying four key ingredients for successful learning, such as the use of concrete experiences; continuous availability of supervision and advising; encouragement of adults to take on new complex roles, and the use of support and feedback when implementing new techniques. Teachers wanted learning experiences that they could immediately practise (WIL) in their classrooms. They liked to discuss practices with others and problem-solve classroom situations. Through these interactive situations, teachers were able to reflect, grow and adapt throughout their teaching careers (Trotter, 2006:12).

Adults bring numerous life and work experiences, needs, personalities and learning styles to their learning, which also shape their perspectives on learning, education and PD (Grado- Severson, 2007). Theories of adult learning and development illuminate how adults can be supported when engage in PDPs (Steyn, 2010a:541). Knowles’s theory of androgogy emphasizes that adults are self-directed and expect to take responsibility for decisions. Androgogy makes the following assumptions: Adult learners, particularly RSSTs, want to understand why they need to learn something; experiential learning is recommended for adults; adult learning is facilitated by challenging and relevant problem solving; and adults learn best when the topic is of immediate value (Steyn, 2010a:541). Therefore, Lee (2005) points out that the beliefs and assumptions about adult learning need to form the foundation of teachers’ PDPs. Since adult learners, particularly RSSTs, learn by experimenting, WIPDPs can be effective to develop KZN rural secondary school teachers (Dali, 2011).

3.3.1.5 Integration of the four selected teacher PD theories

According to Moursund (2007), a focus on situated learning is on learning by doing and on addressing real problems. Here, knowledge is seen as a practical capability for doing and making. Meaning is seen as a construction of social unit that shares a stake in a common situation. Interaction is a critical component of situated learning and learners (teachers) become involved in CoP which embodies certain beliefs and behaviours to be acquired (Love & Wenger in Moursund, 2007).

The constructive learning of adult learning strategies are self-learning, independent learning, co-operative learning and problem-oriented learning (Free Papers Download Center, 2010). A good example of these WIPD strategies is a study by Ruey (2010:706) who found the majority of adult learners (teachers) were engaged in two facets of learning. The instructional activities requiring collaboration and interaction helped the teachers support one another’s learning, from which most claimed to have benefited. The constructivist-based course assisted many adult learners to develop a sense of becoming more responsible, self-directed learners. Overall, the social constructivist style of instructional strategy seems promising to facilitate adult learning, which not only helps change RSSTs’ perceptions, but also assists them to learn more collaboratively, authentic and responsible way.

Figure 3.2 The RSSTs’ integrated PD theories

These four integrated PD theories in Figure 3.2 are interwoven or closely related because they complement each other. RSSTs learn by doing and are more interested in problem-based learning. These learners (RSSTs) need one another to teach each other since knowledge is situated. This is because teaching in RSSs is different from teaching in urban schools (Lawless, 2009). Therefore, RSSTs need other teachers who are more knowledgeable (peer, HOD, principal, and subject adviser) about the rural context to develop them as part of the WIPD.